
Qass-PEUM 
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THE 

INSTITUTES ^ 

METHODICALLY ARRANGED ; 

WITH 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING, QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION, 

FALSE SYNTAX FOR CORRECTION, EXERCISES 

FOR WRITING, OBSERVATIONS FOR 

THE ADVANCED STUDENT, 

AND 

A KEY TO THE ORAL EXERCISES: 
TO WHICH ARE ADDED POUR APPENDIXES. 

Designed for the use of Schools, Academies, and Private Learners. 

BIT GO OLD BROWN. 

Ne quisigiturtanquamparvayastidiat & amm ^™*^*^ 



IV*/\VW\.'N/V\ 



iECOND EDITION, REVISED AN 

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NEW-Y0R1 

PUBLISHED BY SAMUEL W0( 

No. 261, Pearl-Street; 

AND SAMUEL S. WOOD & CO. NO. 212, MARKET-STREET, BALTIMORE 

"'l825.' 



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SOUTHERN DISTRICT OF NEAT-YORK, ss. 

BE IT REMEMBERED, That on the Thirtieth day of June, A. D. 1825, in the 
the forty ninth year of the Independence of the United States of America. 
Goold Brawn, of the said District, hath deposited in this office, the title of a book, 
the right whereof he claims as author, in the words following, to wit : 

♦'THE INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, methodically arranged; 
•with examples for parsing, questions for examination, false syntax for correction, 
exercises for -writing, observations for the advanced student, and a key to the oral 
exercises: to -which are added four appendixes Designed for the use of schools, 
academies, and private learners. By Goold Bro-wn. Ne quis igitur tanquampar- 
va fastidiat Grammatices elementa. — Quiniilian. Second Edition, revised and 
enlarged " 

In conformity to the Act of Congress of the United States, entitled" An act 
for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of Maps, Charts, 
and Books, to the Authors and Proprietor* of such copies, during the time 
therein mentioned : ,n and also to an Act, entitled," an Act, supplementary to an 
Act, entitled an Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of 
Maps, Charts, and Books, to the A uthors and Proprietors of such copies during 
the times therein mentioned,and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of de- 
signing, engraving, and etching historical and other prints-' 

JAMES DILL, 
Clerk of the Southern District of New-Yerk. 



*fS 



RECOMMENDATIONS. 



New- York, February, 1824. 

The undersigned have examined Goold Brown's new work, en- 
titled "The Institutes of English Grammar," and are of opinion that, 
in the justness of its general views, the excellence of its style, the 
"brevity and perspicuity of its definitions, the copiousness and adap- 
tation of its examples and exercises, the accuracy of its critical 
notes and observations, and the method of its arrangement, this 
work surpasses all other grammars now in use ; and, that it conse» 
quently deserves the attention and patronage of every person con- 
cerned in cultivating the science of the English Language. 

The Brief Abstract, entitled, " The First Lines of English Gram- 
mar," by the same author, is a neat, cheap, and concise treatise, 
containing many of the excellencies of the larger work, and is pe- 
culiarly fitted for young learners. It is sufficiently comprehensive 
for most elementary schools. 

J. Griscom, LL.D. Prof. Chem.SfC. James Douglas, Teacher. 

Samuel L. Mitchell, LL.D. <^j¥.D.Rufus Lockwood, do. 

D.H.Barnes, A .M. High School. Robert K. Moulton, do. 

Ansel W. Ives, M. D. Bartholomew M'Gowan, do. 

J. M. Wainwright, D.D.Rec. G. CTi.William Wagstaff, do. 

James Milnor, D. D. Rector of St. Charles Brasham, do. 

George's Church. James B. Requa, do. 

William Forrest, A. M. Teacher. Samuel* R. Gummere, Teacher, 
Thatcher T. Payne, do. Burlington, New- Jersey. 

Robert F. Mott, do. William Mitchell, Teacher, Nan- 

Ezekiel W. Morse, do. tucket. 



Neiv-York, May, 1824. 
The undersigned having satisfactorily examined Goold Brown's 
" Institutes of English Grammar," and also the Abstract, entitled 
¥ The First Lines of English Grammar," and being convinced, that 
these works, both in their design and execution, excel those which 
they have heretofore used, have adopted them exclusively, as their 
class books in this branch of instruction. 

Daniel H. Barnes, John Coats, 

Borland fe Forrest, Joseph C. Hart, 

Lindley Murray Moore, Daniel C. Underbill, 

Uriah E. Wheeler, Silas Woodbury, 

Maurice Hoyt, Alfred Bixby, 

Samuel Wescott, Henry Hart, 

Thaddeus Whitlock, Moses Hale, 

Edward P. Maguire, Benjamin Mortimer, Jun, 

William Sherwood, Aaron B. Quinby, 

Abraham Mills, Solomon Genner, 

Calvin S. Crane, Henry Edmonds. 
Joseph Hoxie, 



RECOMMENDATIONS, IV 

The following are extracts from the Minutes of " The Teachers' 
Society in New-York" — an incorporated body, then consisting 
of fifty seven of the most respectable teachers in the city : 

" At a Meeting of the Teachers' Society, held June 19th, 1824. 
—The Society again resolved itself into a committee of the whole, 
for the further examination of Brown's Institutes of English Gram- 
mar. After considerable attention thereto, the committee rose and 
reported the following resolution; which was unanimously adopt- 
ed : 

11 Resolved, That the Teachers' Society of New-York, consider 
that Mr. Goold Brown has conferred an important benefit upon the 
community, by presenting to it his Institutes of English Grammar, 
and that this work is worthy of the most extensive patronage." 
William S. Cardell, 

Chairman of the Com. of the ivhole. 

"On motion, Resolved unanimously, That Mr.- G. Brown have 
leave to publish the opinion of this Society in relation to his Insti- 
tutes of English Grammar, as expressed in the resolution framed in 
committee of the whole, and in the report of the Philological Com- 
mittee." 

William Forrest, A. M. 

President of the Society. 

The Report of the Philological Committee was as follows : 
" At a meeting of the Philological Committee of the New-York 
Teachers' Society, held 1st mo. 10th, 1824.— The Committee re- 
sumed the consideration of Brown's Institutes of English Gram- 
mar, and, having been closely engaged for some time in examining 
the said work, concluded to make the following report : 

" The Committee are of opinion, that this Grammar does (as it 
professe's to do) ' express the true principles of the English Lan- 
guage in a simple and perspicuous style, illustrate them by appro- 
priate examples and exercises, and give to the whole the greatest 
advantage from method in the arrangement ;' and that, in these 
several particulars, it excels all other treatises on Grammar with 
which they are acquainted." 

Daniel H. Barnes, A. M. f 

Chairman of the Phil. Committee, 
Robert F. Mott, Secretary. 



From Professor Potter, Union College, Schenectady. 
Dear Sir, Union College, October 22d 1824/ 

A hasty examination of your Grammar has afforded 
' me much pleasure. Combining with a judicious arrangement of 
the most important principles, such examples and exercises as are 
calculated to impress them thoroughly on the understanding, as well 
as the memory of the pupil, it appears to me peculiarly calculated 
for the instruction of the young. I sincerely trust that your labours 
will be rewarded with merited success, and beg you to accept the 
assurance of my respectful consideration. 

A. POTTER. 

Mr. Goold Brown. 



PREFACE. 



Language is the principal vehicle of thought; and so 
numerous and important are the ends to which it is subser- 
vient, that it is difficult to conceive in what manner the af- 
fairs of human society could be conducted without it. Its 
Utility, therefore, will ever entitle it to a considerable 
share of attention in civilized communities, and to an im- 
portant place in all systems of education. For, whatever 
we may think in relation to its origin, — whether we consid- 
er it a special gift from Heaven, or an acquisition of 
industry, — a natural endowment, or an artificial inven- 
tion, — certain it is, that, in the present state of things, our 
knowledge of it, depends, in a great measure, if not entire- 
ly, on the voluntary exercise of our faculties, and on the 
Jielps and opportunities afforded us. One may indeed ac- 
quire, by mere imitation, such a knowledge of words, as to 
^njoy the ordinary advantages of speech ; and he who is 
satisfied with the dialect he has so obtained, will find no 
occasion for treatises on grammar : but he who is desirous 
either of relishing the beauties of literary composition, or 
of expressing his sentiments with propriety and ease, must 
make the principles of language his study. 

It is not the business of the grammarian to give law to 

language, but to teach it, agreeably to the best usage. The 

ultimate principle by w 7 hich he must be governed, and 

with which his instructions must always accord, is that 
1 # 



VI PREFACE. 

species of custom which critics denominate good use j 
that is, present, reputable, general use. This principle, 
which is equally opposed to fantastic innovation, and to a 
pertinacious adherence to the quaint peculiarities of an- 
cient usage, is the only proper, standard of grammatical 
purity. Those rules and modes of speech, which are es- 
tablished by this authority, may be called the Institutes 
of Grammar. 

To imbody, in a convenient form, the true principles of 
the English Language, to express them in a simple and 
perspicuous style, adapted to the capacity of youth, to il- 
lustrate them by appropriate examples and exercises,and to 
give to the whole all possible advantage from method in the 
arrangement, are the objects of the following work. The 
author has not deviated much from the principles adopted 
in the most approved grammars already in use ; nor has he 
acted the part of a servile copyist. It was not his design 
to introduce novelties, but to form a practical digest of es- 
tablished rules. He, has not laboured to subvert the general 
system of grammar, received from time immemorial ; but to 
improve upon it, in its present application to our tongue. 
The nature of the subject almost entirely precludes inven- 
tion. He has,however,aimed at that kind and degree of origi- 
nality, which are to be commended in works of this sort ; 
and has borrowed no more from others, than did the most 
learned and popular of his predecessors. And, while he 
has taken the liberty to think and write for himself, he 
trusts it will be evident that few have excelled him in dili- 
gence of research, or have followed more implicitly the 
dictates of that authority which gives law tolanguage. Hav- 
ing devoted many years to studies of this nature, and be- 
ing conversant with most of the grammatical treatises al- 



PREFACE. Vll 

ready published, he conceived that the objects above enu- 
merated, might, perhaps, be better effected, than they had 
been, in any work within his knowledge. He does not 
mean, however, to depreciate the labours, or to detract 
from the merits, of those who have gone before him. He 
has studiously endeavoured to avail himself of all the light 
they they have thrown upon the subject. For his own in- 
formation, he has carefully perused more than fifty English 
grammars, and has sought, with some diligence, the analo- 
gies of speech, in the structure of several other languages. 
His progress in compiling this work, has been slow, and not 
unattended with labour and difficulty. Amidst the contra- 
rieties of opinion, that appear in the various treatises al- 
ready before the public, and the perplexities inseparable 
from so complicated a subject, he has, after deliberate con- 
sideration, adopted those views and explanations which ap- 
peared to him the least liable to objection, and the most 
compatible with his ultimate object, — the production of a 
practical school grammar. On disputed points, he has not 
been disposed to dogmatize ; but has, as far as his limits 
would allow,given the various opinions of the most respect- 
able grammarians. How far the author has succeeded in 
the execution of his design, is left to the candid decision 
of those who are qualified to judge. 

JSTew-York, 1823. 



19 

ADVERTISEMENT 

TO THS 

SECOND EDITION. 



The former edition of the Institutes of English Gram- 
mar having been favourably received by the public, and 
adopted by many respectable teachers, the author has been 
induced to devote yet further time and labour to the sub- 
ject, with the hope of rendering his work still more valua- 
ble. On a careful revision of the whole, it did not appear 
expedient to make much alteration in what had been writ- 
ten ; but it was thought that some additional matter might 
be introduced to advantage. To this edition are added 
several critical notes and observations never before pub- 
lished, and four chapters of exercises designed to be writ- 
ten out by the learner. In selecting examples for these 
exercises, the author has been studious to economize the 
learner's and the teacher's time, by admitting those only 
which were very short. He has, in general, reduced each 
example to the compass of a single line. And, in this man- 
ner, he has been able to present, in this small volume, a 
series of exercises more various than are given in any oth- 
er grammar, and nearly equal in number to all that are 
contained in Murray's two octavoes. It is believed that a 
grammatical treatise at once so comprehensive and concise, 
has not before been offered to the public. In preparing 
the examples, exercises, and parsing lessons, the author 
has been solicitous to avoid every thing that could be of- 



PREFACE. IX 

fensive to the most delicate and scrupulous reader; and, 
of the several thousands of quotations given, he trusts 
that the greater part will be considered valuable on ac- 
count of the sentiments they contain. 

A separate Key to the exercises for writing, will be pub- 
lished for the convenience of teachers and private learners. 

Having undertaken and prosecuted this work, with the 
hope of facilitating the study of the English Language, and 
thus promoting the improvement of the young, the author 
now presents his finished labours to the candour and dis- 
cernment of those to whom is committed the important busi- 
ness of instruction. 

New- York, 1825, 



©<MftH!K 



Definition and Division of the Subject 
PART I.— ORTHOGRAPHY 
Of Letters — Rules for the use of Capitals 
Of Syllables and Words 
Of Spelling — Rules for Spelling 
Questions on Orthography- 
Exercises in Orthography, 
PART II.— ETYMOLOGY . . 

Of the Parts of Speech 
Examples for Parsing, Chapter I. 
Of the Article 
Of the Noun 

Persons . 

Numbers 

Genders . . 

Cases 
Examples for Parsing, Chapter II. . 
Of the Adjective 

Examples for Parsing, Chapter III. 
Of the Pronoun 

Examples for Parsing, Chapter IV. 
Of the Verb - 

Moods 

Tenses 

Persons and Numbers 

Passive Verbs 

Irregular Verbs 

Defective Verbs 
Of the Participles . . . 

Examples for Parsing, Chapter V. 
Of the Adverb 
Of the Conjunction 
Of the Preposition 
Of the Interjection 
Examples for Parsing, Chapter VI. 
Questions on Etymology 
Exercises in Etymology 
PART III.— SYNTAX 
Introductory Definitions 
Rules of Syntax 

Examples for Parsing, Chapter VII. 
Rules of Syntax, with Ex., Notes, Obs., and False Syntax 
Rule I. Ofthe Articles 
Rule II Of the Nominative to a verb 
Rule III. Of Words in apposition 
Rule IV. Of Adjectives 
Rule V. Ofthe Pronoun and antecedent 
Rule VI. Of the Pronoun and collective noun 
Rule VII. Of the Pronoun and joint antecedents 
Rule VIII. Of the Pronoun and disjunct antecedents 



CONTENTS. 



XI 



Rule IX. Of the Verb and nominative 

Rule X Of the Verb and collective noun 

Rule XL Of the Verb and joint nominatives 

Rule XII. Of the Verb and disjunct nominatives 

Rule XIII. Of Verbs connected 

Rule XIV. Of Participles . 

Rule XV. Of Adverbs 

Rule XVI. Of Conjunctions 

Rule XVII. Of Prepositions 

Rule XVIII. Of Interjections 

Rule XIX. Of the Possessive Case . 

Rule XX. Of the Objective Case after a Verb or Participle 

Rule XXI. Of the Same Case after a Verb as before it 

Rule XXII. Of the Objective Case after a Preposition 

Rule XXIII. Of the Infinitive Mood . 

Rule XXIV. Of the Infinitive after bid, dare, feel, &c. 

Rule XXV. Of the Nominative Case absolute 

Rule XXVI. Of the Subjunctive Mood 

Promiscuous Examples of False Syntax 

Examples for Parsing, Chapter VIII. . 

Questions on Syntax 

Exercises in Syntax 

PART IV— PROSODY 

Of Punctuation 

Of the Comma . . . 

Of the Semicolon 

Of the Colon 

Of the Period 

Of the Dash, the Note of Interrogation, kc. 

Of the Other Marks 

Of Utterance 

Of Pronunciation 

Of Elocution 

Of Figures 

Of Figures of Etymology 

Of Figures of Syntax 

Of Figures of Rhetoric . , 

Of Versification 

Of Iambic Verse 

Of Trochaic Verse 

Of Anapasstic Verse . 

Of Dactylic Verse . 

Examples for Parsing, Chapter IX. 

Questions on Prosody 

Exercises in Prosody 

A KEY to the Oral Exercises in False Syntax 

APPENDIX I. Of the Sounds of the Letters 

APPENDIX II. Of Derivation 

APPENDIX III. Of Style 

APPENDIX IV. Of Poetic Diction , 



INSTITUTES 



fflHGHLBSBC ©EAMSA2& 



English Grammar is the art of speaking and 
writing the English language correctly. 

It is divided into four parts ; namely, Orthogra- 
phy, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 

Orthography treats of letters, syllables, words, 
and spelling. 

Etymology treats of the different parts ofspeech* 
and their classes and modifications. 

Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, govern- 
ment, and arrangement, of words in sentences. 

Prosody treats of punctuation, utterance, figures* 
and versification. 



PART I. 

Orthography treats of letters, syllables, words, and 
spelling. 

OF LETTERS, 

A Letter is a character used in printing or writing, 
to represent an articulate sound. 

An articulate sound, is a sound of the human voice, 
used in speakiDg. 



Z ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The letters in the English alphabet, are twenty- 
six ; Aa,Bb, Cc, Dd, Ee, Ff, G g, Hh, I i, 
Jj, Kk, LI, Mm, Nn, O o, Pp, Q q, R r, 
Ss, Tt, Uu, Vv, Ww, Xx, Yy, Zs. 
The letters are divided into vowels and consonants* 

A vowel is a letter which forms a perfect sound, 
when uttered alone. 

A consonant is a letter which cannot be perfectly 
uttered, till joined to a vowel. 

The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w, and 
y. All the other letters are consonants. 

W and y are consonants when they precede a vow- 
el in the same syllable ; as in wine, twine, youth : in 
other situations, they are vowels. 

The consonants are divided into mutes, and semi- 
vowels. 

A mute is a consonant which cannot be sounded at all 
without a vowel. The mutes are b, d, k, p, q, t, and c 
and g hard. 

A semi-vowel is a consonant which can be imperfectly 
sounded without a vowel. The semi-vowels are /, h< j, I, 
m, n, r, s, v, x, s, and c and g soft. Of these I, m, w, and 
r, are termed liquids, on account of the fluency of their 
sounds. 

In the English language, the Koman characters are 
generally employed ; sometimes, the Italic ; and oc- 
casionally, the old English. The letters have sev- 
erally two forms, by which they are distinguished as 
capitals and small letters. The small letters con- 
stitute the body of every work. Capitals are used 
for the sake of eminence and distinction. 

RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITALS 

RULE I. 

The titles of books, and the heads of their principal di- 
visions, should be printed in capitals. When books are 
merely mentioned, the principal words in their titles begin 
with capitals, and the other letters are small ; as, "Pope's 
Essay on Man." 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 5 

RULE II. 

The first word of every distinct sentence, should begin 
with a capital. 

RULE III. 

All names of the Deity should begin with capitals ; as, 
God, Jehovah, the Almighty, the Supreme Being, 

RULE IV. 

Titles of office or honour, and proper names of every 
description, should begin with capitals; as, Chief Justice 
Hale, William, London, the Park, the Albion, the Specta- 
tor, the Thames, 

RULE v. 

The name of an object personified, when it conveys an 
idea strictly individual, should begin with a capital ; as, 
" Come, gentle Spring, ethereal mildness, come." 

RULE VI. 

Words derived from proper names, should begin with 
capitals ; as, Newtonian, Grecian, Roman, 

RULE VII. 

The words I and O, should always be capitals. 

RULE VIII. 

Every line in poetry should begin with a capital. 

RULE IX. 

The first word of an example, of a distinct speech, or 
of a direct quotation, should begin with a capital ; as, "Re- 
member this maxim : * Know thyself.' " — " Virgil says, 
' Labour conquers all things.' " 

rule x. 
Other words of particular importance, aQd such as de- 
note the principal subject of discourse, may be distinguish? 
ed by capitals. Proper names frequently have capitals 
throughout. 

OF SYLLABLES AND WORDS. 
A Syllable is one or more letters pronounced in 
one sound, and is either a word or a part of a word; 
as, a, an, ant. 



4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A Word is one or more syllables spoken or written 
as the sign of some idea. 

In every word there are as many syllables as there 
are distinct sounds ; as, gram mart an. 

A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable ; 
a word of two syllables, a dissyllable; a word of 
three syllables, a t r is syllabi e ; and a word of four or 
more syllables, a polysyllable. 

A diphthongh two vowels joined in one syllable ; 
as, ea in beat, ou\n sound. 

A proper diphthong, is a diphthong in which both 
the vowels are sounded ; as, oi in voice. 

An improper diphthong, is a diphthong in which 
only one of the vowels is sounded ; as, oa in loaf. 

A triphthong is three vowels joined in one sylla- 
ble ; as, eau in beau, iew in view, 

A proper triphthong, is a triphthong in which all 
the vowels are sounded ; as, uoy in buoy. 

An improper triphthong, is a triphthong in which 
only one or two of the vowels are sounded ; as, eau 
in beauty. 

Words are distinguished as primitive or deriva- 
tive, and as simple or compound. 

A primitive word is one that is not formed from 
any simpler word in the language ; as, harm, great 9 
connect. 

A derivative word is one that is formed from some 
simpler word in the language ; as, harmless, greatly, 
connected. 

A simple word is one that is not compounded ; as, 
watch, man. 

A compound word is one that is composed of two 
or more simple words ; as, watchman, nevertheless. 

Permanent compounds are consolidated ; as, bookseller, 
schoolmaster : others are formed by the hyphen ; nsglass- 
house, negro-merchant. 

In dividing words iuto syllables, we are chiefly to be 
directed by the ear. The cousonants should generally be 
joined to the vowels or diphthongs which they modify. 

Derivative and grammatical terminations should gene- 



ORTHOGRAPHY . b 

rally be separated from the radical word j as, harm-less, 
great-ly, connect-ed. 

Compounds should be divided into the simple words 
which compose them ; as, watch-man, never -the-tess. 

At the end of a line, a word may be divided, if necessa- 
ry ; but a syllable must never be broken. 

OF SPELLING. 

Spelling is the art of expressing words by their 
proper letters. 

Obs. — This important art is to be acquired rather by means 
of the spelling-book or dictionary, and by observation in reading, 
than by the study of written rules. The orthography of our lan- 
guage is attended with much uncertainty and perplexity : many 
words are variously spelled by the best scholars, and many others 
are not usually written according to the analogy of similar words. 
But to be ignorant of the orthography of such words as are uni- 
formly spelled and frequently used, is justly considered disgrace- 
ful. The following rules may prevent some embarrassment, and 
thus be of service to the learner. 

RULES FOR SPELLING. 
RULE I. 

Monosyllables ending in/, I, or s, preceded by a single 
rowel, double the final consonant ; as, staff, mill, pass : 
except, if of, as, gas, has, ?vas, yes, is, his, this, us, thus. 

RULE II. 

Words ending in any other consonant than/, I, or s, 
do not double the final letter : except add, odd, ebb, egg, 
inn, err, purr, butt, buzz, and some proper names. 

RULE III. 

Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, 
when they end with a single consonant preceded by a sin- 
gle vowel, double their final consonant before an addition- 
al syllable that begins with a vowel : as, rob, robber ; per- 
mit, permitting. 

X, being equivalent to ks, is never doubled. 

RULE IV. 

A final consonant, when it is not preceded by a single 
vowel, or when the accent is not on the last syllable.should 
remain single before an additional syllable : as, toil, toiling; 
visit, visited; general, generalize. 

2 * 



O ENGLISH GRAjyiIVIAR. 

But I and s final are often doubled, (though improperly,; 
when the last syllable is not accented : as, travel, travel- 
ler ; bias, biassed. 

rule v. 

Primitive words euding in II, generally reject one I, be- 
loreful, less, ly, and ness : as, skill, skilful, skilless ; full, 
fully, fulness. 

Words ending in any other double letter, preserve it 
double ; as, blissful, oddly, stiffness, carelessness. 

RULE VI. 

The final e of a primitive word, is generally omitted 
before an additional termination beginning with a vowel : 
as, rate, ratable ; force, forcible ; rave, raving. 

Words ending in ce or ge, retain the e before able or 
ous,to preserve the soft sound of c andg- : as, peace, peacea- 
ble ; change, changeable ; outrage, outrageous. 

RULE VII. 

The final c of a primitive word, is generally retained 
before an additional termination, beginning with a conso- 
nant : as, pale, paleness ; lodge, lodgement. 

When the c is preceded by a vowel, it ought to be, and 
generally is, omitted : as, true, truly ; awe, awful. 

RULE VIII. 

The final y of a primitive word, when preceded by a 
consonant, is changed into i before an additional termina- 
lion : as, merry, merrier, merriest, merrily, merriment ;pity, 
pitied, pities, pitiest, pitiless, pitiful, pitiable. 

Before ing, y is retained, to prevent the doubling of i ; 
as, pity, pitying. Words ending in te, dropping the e, by 
liULE vi. change i iutoy, for the same reason ; as, die, dying. 
When a vowel precedes, y should not be changed : as,day, 
days ; valley, valleys. 

RULE IX. 

Compounds generally retain the orthography of the sim- 
ple words which compose them ; as, hereof, wherein, horse- 
man, recall, uphill, shellfish. 

In permanent compounds, the words full and all drop 
one' I ; as, handful, careful, always, withal : in others, they 
retain both ; as, full-eyed, all-wise, save^all. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 7 

©bs. — Other words ending in 11 sometimes improperly drop one 
/•, when taken into composition ; as, miscal, downhil. This excis- 
ion is reprehensible, because it is contrary to general analogy > and 
because both letters are necessary to preserve the sound, and show 
the derivation of the compound. Where is the consistency of 
writing recall, miscal — inthrall, bethral — windfall, downfal — laystall, 
ihumbstal — waterfall, overfal — molehill, dunghil — windmill, twibil — 
tlodpoll,enrol? [See Johnson's Dictionary, first American ed. 4to.] 

QUESTIONS. 

What is English Grammar ? 
How is it divided ? 
Of what does Orthography treat ? 
Of what does Etymology treat ? 
Of what does Syntax treat ? 
Of what does Prosody treat ? 



QUESTIONS ON ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Of what does Orthography treat ? 

What is a Letter ? 

What is an articulate sound ? 

How many letters are there in English ? Repeat them. 

How are the letters divided ? 

What is a vowel ? 

What is a consonant ? 

What letters are vowels ? and what, consonants ? 

When are w and y consonants ? and when, vowels ? 

How are the consonants divided ? 

What is a mute ? 

What consonants are mutes ? 

What is a semi-vowel ? 

What consonants are semi-vowels '? 

What letters are called liquids ? and why "1 

What characters are employed in English ? 

Has each letter more than one form / 

On what account are capitals used ? 

What words should be distinguished by capitals '?. 

What is a Syllable ? 

What is a Word? 

Can the syllables of a word be perceived by the ear.? 

What is a word of one syllable called ? 



8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

What is a word of two syllables called ? 

What is a word of three syllables called ? 

What is a word of four opaore syllables called ? 

What is a diphthong ? 

What is ^proper diphthong ? 

What is an improper diphthong ? 

What is a triphthong ? 

What is a proper triphthong ? 

What is an improper triphthong ? 

How are words distinguished 1 

What is a primitive word ? 

What is a derivative word ? 

What is a simple word ? 

What is a compound word ? 

What is Spelling ? 

How is this art to be acquired ? 

How many and what are the rules for spelling ? 



EXERCISES IN ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Note. — Spelling is to be taught by example, rather than 
by rule. For oral exercises in this branch of learning, 4he 
spelling-book or some vocabulary should be employed. The 
following examples of false orthography are inserted, that 
they may be corrected by the pupil, in writing. They 
are selected with direct reference to the rules ; which are, 
at first, indicated by figures. For it is evident, that exer- 
cises of this kind, without express rules for their correc- 
tion, would rather perplex than instruct the learner ; and 
that his ability to correct them without reference to the 
rules, must presuppose such knowledge as would render 
them useless. 

EXERCISE I.— CAPITALS. 

I. The pedant quoted Johnson's dictionary of the en- 
glish language, Gregory's dictionary of arts and sciences, 
Crabb's english synonymes, Walker's key to the pronunci- 
ation of proper names, Sheridan's rhetorical grammar, and 
the diversions of purley. 

2. gratitude is a delightful emotion, the grateful heart 
at once performs its duty, and endears itself to others. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. U 

3. What mad Dess and folly, to deny the great first cause ! 
Shall mortal man presume against his maker ? shall he not 
fear the omnipotent ? shall he not reverence the everlasting 
one ? — ' The fear of the lord is the beginning of wisdom.' 

4. xerxes the great, emperor of persia, united the medes, 
persians, bactriaus, lydians, assyrians, hyrcanians, and ma- 
ny other nations, in an expedition against greece. 

5. I observed that, when the votaries of religion were 
led aside, she commonly recalled them by her emissary 
conscience, before habit had time to enchain them. 

6. Hercules is said to have killed the nemean lion, the 
erymanthian boar, the lernean serpent, and the stymphalian 
birds. — The christian religion has brought mythologic 
stories, and milesian fables into disrepute. 

7. i live as i did, i think as i did, i love you as i did ; 
but all these are to no purpose : the world will not live, 
think, or love, as i do. — o wretched prince ! o cruel re- 
verse of fortune ! o father Micipsa ! 

8. are these thy views? proceed, illustrious youth, 
and virtue guard thee to the throne of truth ! 

9. Those who pretend to love peace, should remember 
this maxim : " it is the second blow that makes the battle.'* 

EXERCISE II —CAPITALS. 

1 time and i will challenge any other two,' said philip. 
' thus', said diogenes, * do i trample on the pride of plato.' 
— c true,' replied plato ; but is it not with the greater pride 
of diogenes V 

the father, in a transport of joy, burst into the follow- 
ing words : ' o excellent scipio ! heaven has given thee 
more than human virtue ! o glorious leader ! o wondrous 
youth !' 

epaminondas, the theban general, was remarkable for 
his love of truth. he never told a lie, even in jest. 

and pharaoh said to Joseph, "say to thy brethren, * do 
this — lade your beasts, and go to the land of canaan.' " 

who is she that, with graceful steps, and a lively air, 
trips over yonder plain ? her name is health : she is the 
daughter of exercise and temperance. 

to the penitent sinner, a mediator and intercessor with 
the sovereign of the universe, appear comfortable names. 

the murder of abel, the curse and rejection of cain, and 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the birth and adoption of seth, are almost the only events 
related of the immediate family of adam, after his fall. 

on what foundation stands the warrior's pride, 

how just his hopes, let Swedish charles decide. 

in every leaf that trembles to the breeze, 

i hear the voice of god among the trees. 

EXERCISE III.— SPELLING. 

1. Few know the value of a friend, til they lose him. 
Good men pas by offences, and take no revenge. 
Hear patiently, iff thou wouldst speak wel. 

2. The business of warr is devastation and destruction. 
To er is human ; to forgive, divine. 

A bad speller should not pretend to scholarshipp. 

3. It often requires deep diging, to obtain pure water. 
Praise is most shuned by the praise- worthy. 

He that hoists too much sail, runs a risk of overseting. 

4. Quarrels are more easily begun than endded. 
Contempt leaves a deepper scar than anger. 

Of all tame animals the flatterrer is the most mischievous. 

5. Quacks are generally more venturesome than skillful. 
He that willfully injures others, is a bad citizen. 
Odity may excite attention, but it cannot gain esteem. 

6. Good examples are very convinceing teachers. 
Doubts should not excite contention, but inquirey. 
Obligeing conduct procures deserved esteem. 

7. Wise men measure time by their improvmeot of it. 
Learn to estimate all things by their real usfulness. 
Encouragment increases with success. 

8 Nothing essential to happyness is unattainable. 
Vices, though near relations, are all at varyauce. 
Before thou denyest a favour, consider the request. 
9. Good-wil is a more powerful motive than constraint. 
A wel-spent day prepares us for sweet repose. 
The path of fame is alltogether an uphil road. 

EXERCISE IV.— SPELLING. 

1. He is tal enough who walks uprightly. 
Repetition makes smal transgressions great. 
Religion regulates the wil and affections. 

2. To carry a ful cupp even, requires a steady hand. 
Idleness is the nest in which mischief lays its egs. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 1 \ 

The whole journey of life is besett with foes. 

3. Peace of mind should be prefered to bodily safety. 
A bad begining is unfavourable to success. 

Very fruitful trees often need to be proped. 

4. JNone ever gained esteem by tattling and gossipping. 
Religion purifies, fortifies, and tranquillizes the mind. 
They had all been closetted together a long time. 

5. Let every one be fullly persuaded in his own mind. 
Indolence and listlesuess are foes to happiness. 
Carelesness has occasioned many a wearisome step. 

6. In all thy undertakeings, ponder the motive and the end; 
We cannot wrong others without injureing ourselves. 

A dureable good cannot spring from an external cause. 

7. Duely appreciate and improve your privileges. 
To borrow of future time, is thriftless managment. * 

He who is truely a freman is above mean compliances. - 

8. Pitiing friends cannot save us in a diing hour. 
Wisdom rescues the decaies of age from aversion. 
Vallies are generally more fertile than hills. 

9. Cold numness had quite bereft her of sense. 

A cascade, or waterfal, is a charming object in scenery, 
Nettles grow in the vinyard of the slothfull. 
Tuition is lost on idlers and numbsculs. 

EXERCISE V.— SPELLING. 

1- He that scofs at the crooked, should beware of stooping 
Pictures that resemble flowers, smel only of paint. & 

Misdemeanours are the pioneers of gros vices. 

2. To remitt a wrong, leaves the offender in debt. 
Superlative commendation is near akinn to detraction. 
Piety admitts not of excessive sorrow. 

3. You are safe in forgetiug benefits you have confered. 
He has run well who has outstriped his own errors. 
See that you have ballast proportionate to your rigin°-. 

4. The biasses of prejudice often preclude convincement* 
Rather follow the wise than lead the foollish. 

To reason with the angry, is like whisperring to the deaf. 
A bigotted judge needs no time for deliberation. 
The gods of this world have many worshippers. 

5. Crosness has more subjects than admirers. 
Fearlesness conquers where Blamelesness is armour-bearer. 

6. Many things are chiefly valued for their rareity. 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Vicious old age is hopeless and deploreable. 
Irreconcileabie animosity is always blarneable. 

7. Treachery lurks beneath a guilful toDgue. 
Disobedience and mischief deserve chastisment. 

By self examination, we discover the lodgments of sin. 
The passions often mislead the judgment. 

8. To be happy without holyness, is impossible. 
And all within were walks and allies wide. 
Call imperfection what thou fancy 'st such. 
Without fire chimnies are useless. 

9. The true philanthropist deserves a universal pasport. 
Ridicule is but the froth of il-nature. 

All mispent time will one day be regretted. 

EXERCISE VI.— SPELLING. 

Fiction may soften, without improveing the heart. 
Affectation is a sprout that should be niped in the bud* 
A covettous person is always in want. 
Fashion is compareable to an ignis-fatuus. 
Fair appearances somtimes cover foul purposes. 
Garnish not your commendations with flatterry. 
Never utter a falshood even for truth's sake. 
Medicines should be administerred with caution. 
We have here no continueing city, no abideing rest. 
Many a trapp is laid to insnare the feet of youth. 
We are caught as silyly as the bird in the net. 
By defering repentauce, we accumulate sorrows. 
To preach to the droneish, is to waste your words. 
We are often benefitted by what we have dreaded. 
We may be succesful, and yet disappointed. 
In rebusses, pictures are used to represent wordsi 
He is in great danger who parlies with conscience. 
Your men of forhead are magnificent in promises. 
A true friend is a most valueable acquisition. 
It is not a bad memory that forgets injuryes. 
Weigh your subject wel, before you speak positivly> 
Difficulties are often increased by inismanagment. 
Diseases are more easyly prevented than cured. 
Contrivers of mischief often entrapp themselves. 
Corrupt speech indicates a distemperred mind. 
Asseveration does not ail ways remove doubt. 
Hypocrites are like wolves in sheeps' clotheing, 
Ostentatious liberallity is its own paymaster* 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 13 

EXERCISE VII.— SPELLING. 

A dowohil road maybe travelled with ease. 

Distempered fancy can swel a molehil to a mountain, 

Let your own unbiassed judgment determine. 

A knave can often undersel his houest neighbours* 

Xenophanes prefered reputation to wealth. 

True politeness is the ofspring of benevolence. 

Levellers are generally the dupes of designning men. 

Rewards are for those who have fullfiled their duty. 

Who trusts a hungry boy in a cubburd of dainties? 

Misery acquaints a man with strange bed fellers. 

The liberal man ties his purse with a beau-not. 

Double-deelers are seldom long in favour. 

The characters of the crosrow have wrought wonders. 

The plagiary is a jacdaw decked with stolen plumes. 

All virtues are in agrement ; all vices, at varyance. 

Personnal liberty is every man's natural birthrite. 

There, wrapt in clouds, the blueish hills ascend. 

The birds frame to thy song, their chearfull cherupping. 

There figgs, sky dyed, a purple hue disclose. 

Lysander goes twice a day to the choccolat-house. 

Years following years, steal sumthing every day. 

The soul of the slothfull, does but drowse in his body. 

What think you of a clergiman in a soldier's dres ? 

Justice is here holding the stilliard for a balance. 

The huming burd is somtimes no biger than a bumble-be» 

The muskittoes will make you as spoted as a samon-trout. 

Cruelty to animals is a malicious and lo-lived vice. 

Absolute Necessity must sign their deth-warrant. 

He who catches flies, emulates the nat-snaper. 

The froggs had long lived unmolested in a horspond. 

4 These are villanous creatures,' says a blokheded boy, 

The robbin-read-brest til of late had rest ; 

And children sacred held a martinis nest, 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PART II. 

Etymology treats of the different parts of speech, 
and their classes and modifications. 

The Parts of Speech,or sorts of words, in English, 
are ten ; namely, the Article, the Noun, the Adjec- 
tive, the Pronoun, the Verb, the Participle, the Ad- 
verb, the Conjunction, the Preposition, and the In- 
terjection. 

1. ARTICLE. 

An Article is a word placed before nouns, to limit 
their signification : the articles are the, and an or a. 

2. NOUN. 

A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, 
that can be known or mentioned : as, George, York, 
man, apple, truth. 

3. ADJECTIVE. 

An Adjective is a word added to a noun or pro- 
noun, and generally expresses quality : as, A wise 
man ; a new book. — You two are diligent. 

4. PRONOUN. 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun : as, 
The boy loves his book ; he has long lessons, and he 
learns them well. 

5. VERB. 

A Verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to 
be acted upon : as, I am, I rule, I am ruled. 
6. participle. 

A Participle is a word derived from a verb, parti- 
cipating the properties of a verb and an adjective ; 
and is generally formed by adding ing,d or ed, to the 
verb : as, rule, ruling, ruled. 



ETYMOLOGY. 15 

7. ADVERB. 

An Ad verb is a word added to a verb, a participle, 
an adjeclive, or another adverb; and generally ex- 
presses time, place, degree, or manner : as, They are 
now here, studying very diligently. 

8. CONJUNCTION. 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words or 
sentences in construction, and to show the depend- 
ence of the terms so connected : as, Thou and he 
are happy, because you are good. 

9. PREPOSITION. 

A Preposition is a word used to express some re- 
lation of different things to each other, and is gener- 
ally placed before a noun or a pronoun : as, The 
paper lies before me on the desk. 

10. INTERJECTION. 

An Interjection is a word that 13 uttered merely 
to indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the 
mind: as, Oh ! Alas ! 



EXAMPLES FOR PARSING, 

(CHAPTER I.) 

In which it is required of the pupil — to distinguish and de~ 
fine the different parts of speech. Thus : 

The patient ox submits to the yoke, and meekly per- 
forms the labour required ofhim. 

The . . . is an article. An article is a word placed before 
nouns, to limit their signification. 

palienl . , is an adjective. An adjective is a word added to a 

noun or pronoun, and generally ex- 
presses quality. 

o£ . is a noun. A noun is the name of any person, 

place, or thing, that can be known 
or mentioned, 



16 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



submits ... is a verb. 
to . . . is a preposition. 

the . . , is an article. 
yoke . . . . is a noun. 

and . . is a conjunction. 

meekly . . is an adverb. 

performs . . , is a verb. 
the . . . .is an article. 
labour ... is a noun. 

required . is a participle. 
of . . . is a preposition. 



him. 



is a pronoun. 



A verb is a word that signifies to be 4 
to act, or to be acted upon. 

A preposition is a word used to ex- 
press some relation of different 
things to each other, and is gene- 
rally placed before a noun or a 
pronoun. 

An article is a word placed before 
nouns, to limit their signification. 

A noun is the name of any person* 
place, or thing, that can be known 
or mentioned. 

A conjunction is a word used to con- 
nect words or sentences in con- 
struction, and to show the depend- 
ence of the terms so connected. 

An adverb is a word added to a verb, 
a participle, an adjective, or an 
other adverb ; and generally ex- 
presses time, place, degree, or 
manner. 

A verb is a word that signifies to be, 
to act, or to be acted upon. 

An article is a word placed before 
nouns, to limit their signification. 

A noun is the name of any person, 
place, or thing, that can be known 
or mentioned. 

A participle is a word derived from a 
verb, participating the properties 
of a verb and an adjective ; and is 
generally formed by adding ing, d 
or ed, to the verb. 

A preposition is a word used to ex- 
press some relation of different 
things to each other, and is gener- 
ally placed before a noun or a pro- 
noun. 

A pronoun is a word used instead of 



LESSON I. 

The rose, the lily, and the pink, are fragrant flowers. 

A peach, an apple, a pear, or an orange, is delicious. 

A landscape presents a pleasing variety of objects. 

Man is the noblest work of creation. 

The eagle has a strong and piercing eye, 

The swallow builds her nest of mud, and lines it with soft 
feathers. 

The setting sun gives a beautiful brilliancy to the west- 
ern sky. 



ETYMOLOGY. 17 

LESSON II. 

Candour, sincerity, and truth, are amiable qualities. 

Virtuous youth gradually brings forward accomplished 
and flourishing manhood. 

Injuries retaliated in anger, excite resentment in return. 

All that is great and good in the universe, is on the side 
of clemency and mercy. 

Industry is needful in every condition of life : the price 
of all improvement is labour. 

Sloth enfeebles equally the bodily and the mental powers. 
It saps the foundation of every virtue, and pours upon us 
a deluge of crimes and evils. 

LESSON ill. 

An idle, mischievous, and disobedient pupil disgraces 
himself, dishonours his parents, and displeases his teacher. 
Alas ! that such examples are sometimes found ! 
O Virtue ! how miserable are they who forfeit thy re- 
wards ! 

Pleasure's call attention wins, 
Hear it often as we may ; 
iNew as ever seem our sins, 
Though committed every day. 

O ! then, ere the turf or tomb 

Cover us from every eye, 
Spirit of instruction ! come, 

Make us learn that we must die. 



OF THE ARTICLE. 

An Article is a word placed before nouns, to limit 
their signification : the articles are the, and an or a. 

An and a are one and the same article. An is used 
whenever the following word begins with a vowel sound ; 
as, An art, an end, an heir, an inch, an ounce, an hour, 
an urn: and 0, whenever the following word begins with 
a consonant sound ; as, A man, a house, a wouder, a one, 
a yew, a use, a ewer. Thus the sounds of w and y, even 
when expressed by other letters, require a and not an be- 
fore them. 

3. * 



IB ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The articles are distinguished as the definite and 
the indefinite. 

The definite article is the, which denotes some 
particular thing or things ; as, The boy, the oranges. 

The indefinite article is an or a, which denotes 
one thing of a kind, but not any particular one ; as, 
A boy, an orange. 

A noun without an article is generally taken in its wi- 
dest sense ; as, Man is endowed with reason. 



OF THE NOUN. 

A Noun is the name of any person, place,or thing, 
that can be known or mentioned : as, George, York, 
man, apple, truth. 

CLASSES. 

Nouns are divided into two general classes ; prop- 
er and common. 

A proper noun is the name of some partictdar in- 
dividual or people ; as, Adam, Boston, the Hudson, 
the Romans. 

A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or 
class of things ; as, Beast, bird, fish, insect. 

The particular classes, collective, abstract, and verbal, 
are usually included among common nouns. 

A collective noun, or noun of multitude, is the name of 
many individuals together ; as, Council, meeting, committee, 
flock. 

An abstract noun is the name of some particular quality 
considered apart from its substance; as, Goodness, hard- 
ness, pride, frailty. 

A verbal or participial noun is the name of some action or 
state of being; and is formed from a verb, like a participle, 
but employed as a noun : as, " The triumphing of the 
wicked is short." —Job. xx. 5. 

Obs. 1. — A proper noun with an article prefixed, is used as a com- 
mon noun ;■ as, " He is the Cicero of his age," — that is, the orator, 
li Many a fiery Alp" — that is, mountain : except when a common 
noun is understood ; as, The [river] Hudson—the [ship] Amity — the 
treacherous [man] Judas. 



ETYMOLOGY. 19 

Qbs. 2. — A common noun with the definite article prefixed to 
it, sometimes becomes proper; as, The Park — the Strand. 

Obs. 3 — The common name of a thing personified oftenbecomes 
proper ; as, " ' My power,' said Reason, * is to advise, not to com- 
pel.' " — Johnson. 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Nouns have modifications of four kinds ; namely, 
Persons, Numbers, Genders, and Cases. 

PERSONS. 
Persons, in grammar, are modifications that distin- 
guish the speaker, the hearer, and the person or thing 
merely spoken of. 

Obs. — The distinction of persons is founded on the different re- 
lations which the objects mentioned, may bear to the discourse it- 
self. It belongs to nouns, pronouns, and finite verbs ; and to these 
it is always applied, either by peculiarity of form, or by inference 
from the principles of concord. Pronouns are like their antece- 
dents, and verbs are like their subjects, in person. 

There are three persons ; the first, the second, and 
the third. 

The first person is that which denotes the speak- 
er ; as, " I Paul have written it." 

Obs. — The speaker seldom referstohimselfbyname,asthe speak- 
er; consequently, nouns are rarely used in the first person. 

The second person is that which denotes the hear- 
er; as, " Robert, who did this?" 

Obs. — When inanimate things are spoken to, it is by a figure of 
speech, called personification. 

The third person is that which denotes the person 
or thing merely spoken of; as, "James loves his 
book." 

NUMBERS. 

Numbers are modifications that distinguish unity 
and plurality. 

Obs. — The distinction of numbers serves merely to show whether 
we speak of one object, or of more. It belongs to nouns, pro- 
nouns, and finite verbs ; and to these it is always applied, either 
by peculiarity of form, or by inference from the principles of con- 
cord. Pronouns are like their antecedents, and verbs are like their 
subjects, in number. 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

* 

There are two numbers; the singular and the 
plural. 

The singular number is that which denotes but 
one ; as, The boy learns. 

The plural number is that which denotes more 
than one ; as, The boys learn. 

The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by add- 
ing s or es to the singular : as, hook, hooks ; box, boxes. 

When the singular ends in a souud which will unite 
with that of 5, the plural is generally formed by adding s 
only, and the number of syllables is not increased : as, pen, 
pens ; grape, grapes. But when the sound of s cannot be 
united with that of the primitive word, the plural adds s to 
final e, and es to other terminations, and forms a separate 
syllable : as, page, pages ; fox, foxes. 

Obs. 1. — Nouns endingin o precededby a consonant,add es,butdo 
not increase their syllables : as, wo, woes; hero, heroes; negro, ne- 
groes; potato, potatoes ; muskitto, muskittoes ; octavo, octavoes. Oth- 
er nouns in o add s only ; as folio, fulios. 

Obs. 2. — Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y 
into i, and add es, without increase of syllables : as, fly, flies; duty, 
duties. Other nouns in y add s only : as, day, days ; valley, valleys. 

Obs. 3. — The following nouns in /, change/ into v, and add es, for 
the plural ; sheaf, leaf, loaf, beef, thief, calf, half, elf, shelf self, wolf, 
wharf : as, sheaves, leaves, he. Life, lives; knife, knives ; wife, wives; 
are similar. Staff makes stores: though the compounds of staff are 
regular; as, flagstaff, flagstaff's. The greater number of nouns in/ 
and/e, are regular ; &s,fifes, strifes, chiefs, griefs, gulfs, he. 

Obs. 4. — The following are still more irregular: man,men; wo^ 
man, women ; child, children ; brother, brethren [or brothers] ; foot, 
feet ; ox, oxen ; tooth, teeth ; goose, geese ; louse, lice ; mouse, mice ; 
die, dice ; penny, pence. Dies, stamps, and pennies, coins, are regular. 

Obs. 5. — Many foreign nouns retain their original plural : as, ar- 
canum, arcana ; datum, data ; erratum, errata ; effluvium, effluvia ; 
medium, media [or mediums'] ; stratum, strata ; stamen, stamina ; ge- 
nus, genera ; genius, genii [geniuses, for men of wit ]: magus, magi; 
radius, radii ; appendix, appendices [or appendixes] ; calx, calces ; 
index, indices [or indexes]; vortex, vortices; axis, axes; basis, 
bases ; crisis, crises ; thesis, theses ; antithesis, antitheses; diceresis, 
dicereses; ellipsis, ellipses; emphasis, emphases ; hypothesis, hypotheses; 
metamorphosis, metamorphoses ; automaton, automata; criterion, 
criteria [or criterions] ; phenomenon, phenomena ; cherub, cherubim; 
seraph, seraphim ; beau, beaux [or beaus]. 

Obs. 6. — Some nouns have no plural; as, gold, pride, meekness. 
Proper names, strictly used as such, want the plural. But when 
several persons of the same name are spoken of, the noun becomes 
in some degree common,and admits the plural form and an article ; 
as, The Stuarts — The Ccesars. When a title is prefixed, the name } 
and not the title, is usually made plural ; as, The Miss Howards. 



ETYMOLOGY. 21 

Obs. 7. — Some nouns have no singular ; as, embers, ides, oats, scis- 
sors, tongs, vespers, literati, minutice. 

Obs. 8. — Some are alike in both numbers ; as, sheep, deer, swine, 
hose, means, odds, news, species, series, apparatus. The following are 
sometimes construed as singular, but more frequently, and more 
properly, as plural : alms, amends,pains, riches ; ethics, mathematics, 
metaphysics, optics, politics, pneumatics, and other similar names of 
sciences. Bellows and gallows are properly alike in both numbers ; 
but they have a regular plural in vulgar use. Bolus, fungus, isthmus, 
prospectus and rebus, admit the regular plural. 

Obs. 9. — Compounds in which the principal word is put first, 
vary the principal word to form the plural, and the adjunct to form 
the possessive case : as, father-in-law, fathers-in-law, father-in- 
law's; court-martial, courts-martial, court-martiaVs. The possessive 
plural of such nouns, is never used Compounds ending in/u/,and 
all those in which the principal word is put last, form the plural in 
the same manner as other nouns ; as, handfuls, spoonfuls, mouth- 
fuls, fellow-servants, 

Obs. 10.— Nouns of multitude, when taken collectively, admit 
the plural form ; as, meeting, meetings .- but when taken distribu- 
tive^, they have a plural signification, without the form ; . as " The 
jury were divided." 

GENDERS. 
Genders are modifications that distinguish objects 
in regard to sex. 

Obs. — The different genders are founded on the natural distinc- 
tion of sex in animals, and on the absence of sex in other things, 
In English, they belong only to nouns and pronouns ; and to these 
they are usually applied agreeably to the order of nature. Pronouns 
are of the same gender as the nouns for which they stand. 

There are three genders ; the masculine, the 
feminine, and Ih-e neuter. 

The masculine gender is that which denotes ani- 
mals of the male kind ; as, man, father, king. 

The feminine gender is that which denotes animals 
of the female kind ; as, woman, mother, queen. 

The neuter gender is that which denotes things 
that are neither male nor female ; as, pen,ink, paper, 

Obs. 1. — Some nouns are equally applicable to both sexes; as, 
cousin, friend, neighbour, parent, person, servant. The gender of these 
is usually determined by the context. To such words, some gram- 
marians have applied the unnecessary and improper term common 
gender. Murray justly observes, "There is no such gender be- 
longing to the language. The business of parsing can be effect- 
ually performed without having recourse to a common gender^ 
The term is more useful, and less liable to objection, as applied to 
the learned languages ; but what occasion have we to speak of a 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

il distinction with regard to sex" which leaves the sex undistin- 
guished ? 

Obs.2. — Generic names, even when construed as masculine or 
feminine, often virtually include both sexes ; as, " Hast thou given 
the horse strength ? hast thou clothed his neck with thunder ?" — 
"Doth the hawk fly by thy wisdom, and stretch her wings toward 
the south ?"■ — Job. These are called epicene nouns. 

Obs. 3. — Those terms which are equally applicable to both sexes, 
(if they are not expressly applied to females,) and those plurals 
which are known to include both sexes, should be called masculine 
in parsing ; for, the masculine gender is consideredthe most worthy, 
and is generally employed when both sexes are included under one 
common term. 

Obs. 4. — The sexes are distinguished in three ways : 

1 By the use of different names : as, bachelor, maid; boy, girl ; 
brother, sister ; buck, doe; bull, coiv ; cock, hen ; drake, duck ; earl, 
countess ; father, mother ; friar, nun ; gander, goose; hart, roe ; horse, 
mare ; husband, wife ; king, queen; lad, lass; lord, lady; man, wo- 
man ; master, mistress ; milter, spawner ; nephew, niece ; ram, ewe ; 
sloven, slut; son, daughter ; stag, hind; steer, heifer; uncle, aunt ; 
wizard, witch. 

2. By the use of different terminations : as, abbot, abbess ; admin- 
istrator, administratrix ; adulterer, adulteress ; bridegroom, bride ; 
Caterer, cateress ; duke, dutchess ; emperor, empress ; executor, execu- 
trix ; governor, governess; hero, heroine ; landgrave, landgravine; 
margrave, margravine ; marquis, marchioness ; sorcerer, sorceress ; sul- 
tan, sultaness or sultana ; testator, testatrix ; widower, widow. 

The following become feminine by merely adding ess; baron,dea- 
con, heir, host, jew, lion, mayor, patron, peer, poet,priest, prior, proph- 
et, shepherd, tutor, viscount. And the following, by rejecting the 
hist vowel, and ciclc'.'ng €5* ; actor, ambassador, arbiter, benefactor, 
chanter, conductor, doctor, elector, enchanter, founder, hunter, idola- 
ter, inventor, prince, protector, songster, spectator, tiger, traitor, vo- 
tary. 

3. By prefixing an attribute of distinction: as, cock-sparrow, hen- 
sparrow ; man-servant, maid-servant ; he-goat, she-goat ; male rela- 
tions, female relations. 

Obs. 5. — The names of things without life, used literally, are al- 
ways of the neuter gender. But inanimate objects are often rep- 
resented figuratively, as having sex. Things remarkable for pow- 
er, greatness, or sublimity, are spoken of as masculine ; as, the saw, 
time, death, sleep, fear, anger, winter, war. Things beautiful, amia- 
ble, or prolific, are spoken of as feminine; as, the moon, earth, 
nature, fortune, knoivledge, hope, spring, peace. 

Obs 6.— Nouns of multitude, when they convey the idea of unity, 
er take the plural form, are of the neuter gender; but when they 
convey the idea of plurality without the form, they follow the gen- 
der of the individuals that compose the assemblage. 

Obs. 7. — Creatures whose sex is unknown, are generally spoken 
of as neuter ; as, " He fired at the deer, and wounded it.'' 



ETYMOLOGY, 23 



CASES. 

Cases are modifications that distinguish the rela- 
tions of nouns and pronouns toother words. 

Obs. — The cases are founded on the different relations under 
which things are represented in discourse, and from which the 
words acquire correspondent relations, or a dependence on each 
other according to the sense. In English, these modifications, or 
relations, belong only to nouns and pronouns. Pronouns are not 
necessarily like their antecedents, in case. 

There are three cases ; the nominaiive,the possess* 
ive, and the objective. 

The nominative case is that form or state of a noun 
or pronoun, which denotes the subject of a verb : as, 
The boy runs ; / run. 

Obs. — The subject of a verb is that which answers to who or what 
before it : as, Who runs ? The boy. 

The possessive case is that form or stale of a noun 
or pronoun, which denotes the relation of property : 
as, The boy's hat ; my hat. 

Obs.1. — The possessive case of nouns is formed, in the singular 
number, by adding to the nominative s preceded by an apostrophe ; 
and, in the plural, when the nominative ends in s, by adding on 
apostrophe only. 

Obs. 2. — Plural nouns that do not end in s, usually form the pos- 
sessive case in the same manner as the singular ; as, man's, men's. 

Obs. 3. — When the singular and the plural are alike in the nomi- 
native, the apostrophe, which (as Dr. Johnson has shown) is mere- 
ly a sign of the case, and not of elision, ought to follow the sin the 
plural, to distinguish it from the singular ; as, sheep's, sheeps'. 

Obs. 4. — The apostrophic s adds a syllable to the noun, when it 
will not unite with the sound in which the nominative ends; as, 
torch's, pronounced iorchiz. 

Obs. 5. — The apostrophe and s are'sometimes added to mere 
characters, to denote plurality, and not the possessive case ; as, 
Two a's — three 6's — four 9's. 

The objective case is that form or state of a noun 
or pronoun, which denotes the object of a verb, par- 
ticiple, or preposition : as, I know the boy ; he knows 
me. 



24 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Obs. 1. — The object of a verb, participle, or preposition, is that 
which answers to whom or what after it ; as, I know whom ? The 
boy. 

Obs. 2. — The nominative and the objective of nouns, are always 
alike, being distinguishable from each other only by their place 
in a sentence. 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

The declension of a noun is a regular arrangement 
of its numbers and cases. Thus : 



Singular, 
Nom. friend, 
Poss. friend's, 
Obj. friend ; 



Plural. 
Nom. friends, 
Poss. friends', 
Obj. friends. 



Nom. 

Poss. man s, 

Obj. man ; 



man, 



Nom, 
Poss. 
Obj. 



men, 
men's, 



men. 



Nom. fox, 
Poss. fox's, 
Obj. fox ; 



Nom. foxes, 
Poss. foxes', 
Obj. foxes. 



Nom. fly, 
Poss. fly's 
Obj. fly; 



Nom. flies, 
Poss. flies% 
Obj. flies. 



EXAMPLES FOR PARSING, 

(CHAPTER II.) 

In which it is required of the pupil—to distinguish 
and define the different parts of speech, and the 
classes and modifications of the articles and 
nouns. Thus: 

James is a lad of uncommon talents. 

James is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, mas- 
culine gender, and nominative case. 
1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can 
be known or mentioned. 



ETYMOLOGY. 25 

2. A proper noun is the name of some particular individual or 

people. 

3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing 

merely spoken of. 

4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 

5. The masculine gender is that which denotes animals of the 

male kind. 

6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pro- 

noun, which denotes the subject of a verb. 
is is a verb. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be 

acted upon, 
a is the indefinite article. 

1. An article is a word placed before nouns, to limit their sig- 

nification. 

2. The indefinite article is are or a,- which denotes one thing 

of a kind, but not any particular one. 
lad is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, mas- 
culine gender, and nominative case. 

1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can 

be known or mentioned. 

2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class of 

things. 
3.- The third person is that which denotes the person or thing 
merely spoken of. 

4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 

5. The masculine gender is that which denotes animals of the 

male kind. 

6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pro- 

noun, which denotes the subject of a verb. 

of is a preposition. 

A preposition is a word used to express some relation of dif- 
ferent things to each other, and is generally placed before 
a noun or a pronoun 

uncommon is an adiective. 

An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and gen- 
erally expresses quality. 

talents is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, neu- 
ter gender, and objective case. 

1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can 

be known or mentioned. 

2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class of 

things. 

3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing 

merely spoken of. 

4. The plural number is that which denotes more than one. 

5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are 

neither male nor female. 

6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pro- 

noun, which denotes the object of a verb, participle,, or. 
preposition. 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

LESSON I. 

Science strengthens and enlarges the mind. 

A large ship, traversing the ocean by the force of the 
wind, is a noble proof of the power and ingeuuity of man. 

When spring returns, the trees resume their verdure, 
and the plants and flowers display their beauty. 

I John saw these things and heard them. 

And the king spake, and said to Daniel, « O Daniel! 
servant of the living God, is thy God, whom thou servest 
continually, able to deliver thee from the lions ?' 

LESSON II. 

And all the king's servants, that were in the king's gate, 
bowed, and reverenced Haman : but Mordecai bowed not, 
nor did him reverence. 

Esther put on her royal apparel, and stood in the inner 
court of the king's house. 

A mother's tenderness and a father's care are nature's 
gifts for man's advantage. 

Then shall man's pride and dulness comprehend 

His actions', passions', being's use and end. 



OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

An Adjective is a word added to a noun or pro- 
noun, and generally expresses quality : as, A wise 
man ; a new book. — You two are diligent. 

CLASSES. 
Adjectives may be divided into six classes ; name- 
ly, common, proper, numeral, pronominal, parti- 
cipial, and compound. 

A common adjective is any ordinary epithet ; as, Good, 
bad, peaceful, warlike. 

A proper adjective is one that is formed from a proper 
name ; as^ American, English, Platonic 

A numeral adjective is one that expresses a definite 
number. Numeral adjectives are of two kinds : namely a 

1. Cardinal ; as, One, two, three, four, Sec. 

-2. Ordinal; as, First, second, third, fourth, &c. 



ETYMOLOGY. 27 

A pronominal adjective is a definitive word which may 
either accompany its noun, or represeut it understood ; as, 
" All [men] join to guard what each [man] desires to 
gain." — Pope. 

A participial adjective is one that has the form of a par- 
ticiple; as, An amusing story. 

A compound adjective, is one that consists of two or 
more words joined by a hyphen ; as, nut-brown, laughter- 
loving, four-footed. 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Adjectives have, commonly, no modifications but 
comparison. 

Comparison is a variation of the adjective, to ex- 
press quality in different degrees ; as, hard, harder, 
hardest. 

There are three degrees of comparison ; the posi- 
tive, the comparative, and the superlative. 

The positive degree is that which is expressed by 
the adjective in its simple form ; as, hard, soft, good, 

Obs. — As this form of the adjective does not necessarily imply 
comparison, and as many adjectives admit no other, it is not re- 
quisite in parsing, to mention the degree, unless it be the compara- 
tive or the superlative. 

The comparative degree is that which exceeds the 
positive ; as, harder, softer, better. 

The superlative degree is that which is not ex- 
ceeded ; as, hardest, softest, best. 

Adjectives are regularly compared, when the compara- 
tive degree is expressed by adding er, and the superla- 
tive, by adding est to them ; as, 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 
great, greater, greatest. 

*\vide, wider, widest, 

hot, hotter, hottest. 

This method of comparison is cliietly applicable to mono- 
syllables, and to dissyllables ending in y or muter. 



See R riles for Spelling III. and VI. 



28 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



The different degrees of a quality may also be expressed, 
with presisely the same import, by prefixing to the adjec- 
tive the adverbs more and most : as, wise, more ivise, most 
wise ; famous, more famous, most famous ; amiable, more 
amiable, most amiable. But this can hardly be called a 
variation of the adjective. The adverbs may, with more 
propriety, be parsed separately, 

Most adjectives of more than one syllable, admit only 
the latter method of comparison. 

Diminution of quality is expressed, in like manner, by 
the adverbs less and least ; as, wise, less wise, least wise. 

The followiug adjectives are compared irregularly : 
good, better, best ; bad or ill, worse, worst ; little, less, 
least ; much, more, most ; many, more, most ; far, farther, 
farthest ; forth, further, furthest ; late, later or latter, lat- 
est or last. 

Obs. 1. — All these irregular words, except late and the positives 
good } bad, and many, are adverbs as well as adjectives. Far is now 
seldom used as an adjective in the positive ; and forth, never. 

Obs. 2. — The words, hind, fore, in, out, up, under, mid, head, and 
top, which, in composition with nouns, are often used as adjectives, 
have a form of comparison that is both irregular and redundant: 
as, hind, hinder, hindmost or hindermost ; fore, former, foremost or 
first ; in, inner, inmost or innermost ; out, outer or utter, outmost or 

utmost, outermost oruttermost; up, upper, upmost or uppermost ; 

under, undermost ; mid or middle, , midmost or middlemost ; 

head, , headmost ; top, , topmost. But it may be remark- 
ed of the comparatives here given, as well as of the Latin superior 
and inferior, anterior and posterior, interior and exterior, prior and 
ulterior, senior and junior, major wad. minor, that they cannot, like 
other comparatives, be construed with the conjunction than. 

Obs. 3. — Adjectives whose signification does not admit of differ- 
ent degrees, cannot be compared ; as, two, second,all, right, immor- 
tal, infinite. 

Obs. 4. — Nouns are often used as adjectives ; as, An iron bar — 
an evening school. 

Obs. 5. — The numerals are often used as nouns ; and, as such,are 
regularly declined : as, Such a one — one's own self — the little ones 
— by tens — for twenty's sake. 

Obs. 6 — Comparatives, and the word other, are sometimes also 
employed as nouns, and have the regular declension ; as, Our su- 
periors — his betters — the elder's advice — an* other's wo — let others 
do as they will. But, as adjectives, these words are invariable. 



* There seems to be no good reason for joining an and other. Jin here excludes 
any other article; and analogy and consistency require that the words be separa- 
ted. Their union has led sometimes to an improper repetition of the article ; a<;. 
•Mother such a man,'— for, • Another such man.' 



ETYMOLOGY. 29 

Obs. 7. — Pronominal adjectives, when their nouns are expressed, 
simply relate to them, and have no modifications : except this and 
that, which form the plural these and those; and much, many, and 
and a few others, which are compared. 

Obs. 8. — Pronominal adjectives, when their nouns are not ex- 
pressed, may be parsed as representing them in person, number, 
gender, and case. 

Obs. 9. — The following are the principal pronominal adjectives: 
All, any, both, each, either, every, few, former, first, latter, last, many, 
neither, none, one, same, some, such, this, that, which, what. Which 
and ichat, when they are not prefixed to nouns, are pronouns. 



EXAMPLES FOR PARSING, 

(CHAPTER TIL) 

In which it is required of the pupil — to distinguish 
and define the different parts of speech, and the 
classes and modifications of the articles, nouns, 
and adjectives. Thus : 

I prefer the shortest course* 

/ is a pronoun. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. 
prefer is a verb. A verb is a word that signifies to be,to act, or to be 

acted upon, 
the is the definite article. 

1. An article is a word placed before nouns, to limit their sig- 

nification. 

2. The definite article is the, w^hich denotes some particular 

thing or things. 
shortest is a common adjective, of the superlative degree. 

1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and 

generally expresses quality. 

2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet. 

3. The superlative degree is that which is not exceeded. 
course is a. common noun, of the third person, singular number, 

neuter gender, and objective case. 

1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can 

be known or mentioned. 

2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class of 

things. 

3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing 

merely spoken of. 

4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 

5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are 

neither male nor female. 

6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pro- 

noun, which denotes the object of a verb, participle, or 
preposition. 

4 # 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



LESSON I. 

There is an easier and better way. 

Earthly joys are few and transitory. 

Heavenly rewards are complete and eternal. 

The best and wisest men are sometimes in fault. 

Demosthenes was a famous Grecian orator. 

This plain old man has more wit than ail his opponents. 

The three rooms on the second flour, are smaller and 
less convenient than the others. 

The largest and most glorious machines, contrived and 
erected by human skill, are not worthy of a comparison 
with the magnificent productions of nature. 

LESSON II. 

The first years of man must make provision for the last. 
External things are naturally variable, but truth and 
reason are always the same. 

' To him that lives well,' answered the hermit, « every 
form of life is good ; nor can I give any other rule for 
choice, than to remove from all apparent evil.' 
Come, calm Content, serene and sweet! 
O gently guide my pilgrim feet 

To find thy hermit cell ; 
Where, in some pure and equal sky, 
Beneath thy soft indulgent eye, 
The modest virtues dwell. 



OF THE PRONOUN. 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun : as, 
The boy loves his book ; he has long lessons, and he 
learns them well. 

q bs The word for which a pronoun stands, is called its ante* 

cedent because it usually precedes the pronoun, But some have 
limited the term antecedent, to the word represented by a relative. 
The pronouns J and thou, in their different modifications, stand im- 
mediately for persons that are, in general, sufficiently known with- 
out bein^ named. The other personal pronouns are sometimes ta* 



ETYMOLOGY. 31 

ken ia a general sense, to denote persons not mentioned. The per- 
sonal and the interrogative pronouns oTten stand in construction as 
the antecedents toother pronouns; as, " He that arms his intent 
with virtue, is invincible." 

CLASSES. 

Pronouns are divided into three classes ; person- 
al, relative, and interrogative. 

A personal pronoun, is a pronoun that shows, by 
its form, of what person it is. The simple personal 
pronouns are five : namely, /, of the first person ; 
thou, of the second person; he, she, and it, of the 
third person. 

A relative pronoun, is a pronoun that represents 
an antecedent word or phrase, and connects different 
clauses of a sentence. The relative pronouns are, 
who, which, what, and that. 

Obs. I.— Who is usually applied to persons only; which, though 
formerly applied to persons, is now confined to animals and inani- 
mate things ; what (as a mere pronoun) is applied to things only : 
that is applied indifferently to persons, animals, or things. 

Obs. 2. — The pronoun what has a twofold relation, and is often 
used (by ellipsis of the noun) both na mitecedent and relative, be- 
ing equivalent to that which or the thing which. In this double re- 
lation, what represents two cases at the same time ; as, " He is 
ashamed of what he has done ;" that is, of that which he has done. 
It is usually of the singular number, though sometimes plural. 

Obs. 3. — What is sometimes used both as an adjective and a rela- 
tive at the same time, and is placed before the noun which it repre- 
sents : as, " What money we had, was taken away ;" that is, Ml 

the money that we had, &c. " What man but enters,dies ;" that 

is, Any man who, he. Indeed, it does not admit of being construed 
after a noun, as a simple relative. The compound whatever has the 
same peculiarities of construction. 

Obs. 4. — Who, which, and what, when the affix ever or soever is 
added, have an unlimited signification ; and, as some general term, 
such as any person, or any thing, is usually implied as the antece- 
dent, they are all commonly followed by two verbs : as, " Whoever 
attends, will improve ;" that is, Any person who attends, will im- 
prove. 

Obs. 5. — Which and what are often prefixed to nouns as definitive 
or interrogative adjectives ; and, as such, may be applied to peiy 
sons as well as to things : as, " What man ?"^" Which boy?" 

Obs. 6. — That is a relative pronoun, when it is equivalent to who 
or which ; as, "The days that [which] are past, are gone forever." It 
is a definitive or pronominal adjective^ when it relates to a noun ex- 
pressed or understood ; as, " That book is new." In other cases, it 
is a conjunction ; as, " Live well, that you may die Well/' 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Ob s. 7. — The word as, though usually a conjunction or an adverb, 
has sometimes the construction of a relative pronoun ; as, " The 
Lord added to the church daily such [persons] as should be sav- 
ed." — Acts. 

An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun with 
which a question is asked. The interrogative pro- 
nouns are who, which, and what, 

Obs. 1. — Whether wasformerly used as an interrogative pronoun, 
referring to one of two things ; as, " Whether is greater, the gold or 
the temple ?" — Mat. xxiii. 17. 

Obs. 2. — Interrogative pronouns differ from relatives chiefly in 
this ; that, as the subject referred to is unknown to the speaker,they 
do not relate to a preceding noun, but to something which is to be 
expressed in the answer to the question. 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Pronouns have the same modifications as nouns ; 
namely, Persons, Numbers, Genders, and Cases. 

Obs. — In the personal pronouns, most of these properties are dis- 
tinguished by the words themselves ; in the relative and the inter- 
rogative pronouns, they are ascertained chiefly by the antecedent 
and the verb. The personal pronouns of the first and second per- 
sons, are equally applicable to both sexes ; and should be consider- 
ed masculine or feminine according to the known application of 
them. The speaker and the hearer, being present to p.arh other, 
of course know the sex to which they respectively belong ; and, 
whenever they appear in narrative, we are told who they are. In 
Latin, an adjective or a participle relating to these pronouns, is 
•aried to agree with them in number, gender, and case ; as, 
Miserce hoc tamen unum 
Exequere, Anna, mihi : solam nam perfidus ille 
Te colere, arcatios etiam tibi credere sensus ; 
Sola viri molles aditus et tempora noras.— Virgil. 



DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. 

The declension of a pronoun is a regular arrange- 
ment of its numbers and cases. The personal pro- 
nouns are thus declined. 

J, of the first person* 

Sing. Nom. I, Plur. Nom. we* 

Poss. my, or mine, Poss. our, or ours, 

Obj. me ; Obj. us. 



ETYMOLOGY. 33 

Thou, of the second person. 

Sing. Norn, thou, Plur. Nom. ye^, or you, 

Poss. thy, or thine, Poss. your,or yours, 

Obj. thee ; Obj. you. 

He, She, and It, of the third person. 

He, of the masculine gender. 

Sing. Nora, he, Plur. Nom. they, 

Poss. his, Poss. their,or theirs, 

Obj. him ; Obj. them. 

She, of the feminine gender. 

Sing. Nora, she, Plur. Nora, they, 

Poss. her, or hers, Poss. their,or theirs, 

Obj. her; Obj. them. 

It, of the neuter gender. 

Sing, Nom. if, Plur. Nom. they, 

Poss. its,f Poss. their,or theirs, 

Obj. it ; Obj. them. 

Obs. — Most of the personal pronouns have two forms of the pos- 
sessive case. The former is used before a noun expressed ; the lat- 
ter, when the governing noun is understood, or so placed as not im- 
mediately to follow the pronoun. Mine and thine Avere formerly 
used before words beginning with a vowel sound ; as, " It was thou, 
a man, mine equal, my guide, andmi?ze acquaintance." — Psal. But 
this construction is now obsolete. 

The noun self added to the personal pronouns, forms a 
class of compound personal pronouns* that are used when 
an action reverts upon the agent, and also when some per- 
sons are to be distinguised from others : as, sing, myself 
plur ourselves ; sing, thyself plur. yourselves ; sing, him- 



* The use of the pronoun ye, is confined to the solemn style, and to the bur- 
lesque. In the latter, it is sometimes used for the objective case. 

f In ancient times, he, his, and him, were applied to things neuter. In our 
translation of the Bible, it is employed in the nominative and the objective,but his 
is retained in the possessive, neuter; as, u Look not thou upon the wine, when it' 
is' red, when it giveth his colour in the cup, when it moveth itself .arlgbt."«^- 
p rov. xsiii. 31. 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

self* herself itself plur. themselves. They all want the pos- 
sessive case, aad are alike in the nominative and objective. 

The relative and the interrogative pronouns are 
thus declined. 

Who, applied to persons. 

Sing. Nom. who, Piur. Norn, who, 

Poss. whose, Poss. whose, 

Obj. whom ; Obj. whom. 

Which, applied to animals and things. 

Sing. Nom. which, Piur. Nora, which, 

Poss. f Poss. 

Obj. which ; Obj* which. 

What, generally applied to things. 

Sing. Nom. what, Plur. Nom. what, 

POSS. POS3. 

Obj. what; Obj. what. 

That, applied to persons, animals, and things. 

Sing. Nom. that, Plur. Nom. that, 
Poss. Poss. 

Obj. that; Obj. that. 



EXAMPLES FOR PARSING, 

(CHAPTER IV.) 

In which it is required of the pupil — to distinguish 
and define the different parts of speech, and the 
classes and modifications of the articles, nouns, 
adjectives, and pronouns. Thus : 

She met them. 

She is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, 
feminine gender, and nominative case. 



* Hisself itsself, and theirselves, are more analogical than himself, itself, 
themselves; but custom has rejected the former, and established the latter. When 
nn adjective is prefixed to self, the pronouns are written separately in the possess- 
ive case; as, My single self — Myovin self— his own self— their own selves. 

f Whose is sometimes used as the possessive case of which', as, " A religion 
rvhose origin is divine. v r— Blair. 



ETYMOLOGY. 35 

1. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. 

2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of 

what person it is. 

3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing 

merely spoken of. 

4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 

5. The feminine gender is that which denotes animals of the 

female kind. 

6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pro- 

noun, which denotes the subject of a verb. 
met is a verb. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be 

acted upon, 
them is a personal pronoun, of the third person, plural number, 

masculine gender, and objective case. 

1. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. 

2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of 

what person it is. 

3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing 

merely spoken of. 

4. The plural number is that which denotes more than one. 

o. The masculine gender is that which denotes animals of the 
male kind. 

6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pro- 
noun, which denotes the object of a verb, participle, as 
proposition. 



'• 



LESSON r. 



I who was present, know the particulars. 

He who has not virtue, is not truly wise. 

Ad enemy that disguises himself under the veil of friend- 
ship, is worse than one that declares open hostility. 

He that improperly reveals a secret, injures both him 
self and them to whom he tells it. 

Eye me, blest Providence, and square my trial 

To my proportion'd strength ! — Shepherd, lead on. 

LESSON II. 

All men have their frailties. Whoever looks for a friend 
without imperfections, will never find what he seeks : we 
love ourselves with all our faults ; and we ought to love 
our friends in like manner. 

Selina's benevolence and piety engaged the esteem of all 
who knew her. 

"When the Saxons subdued the Britons, they introduced 
into England their own language, which w 7 as a dialect of 
the Teutonic, or Gothic. 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

LESSON IIL, 

Disguise thyself as thou wilt, still, Slavery ! still thou art 
a bitter draught; and though thousands in all ages have 
been made to drink of thee, thou art no less bitter on that 
account. 

Redeem we time ? — its loss we dearly buy. 
What pleads Lorenzo for his high-priz'd sports ? 
He pieads time's mim'rous blanks ; he loudly pleads 
The straw-like trifles on life's common stream. 
From whom those blanks and trifles, but from thee T 
No blank, no trifle, nature made or meant. 



OF THE VERB. 

A Verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to 
be acted upon : as, I am, I rule, I am ruled, 

CLASSES. 

Verbs are divided, with respect to their form, in- 
to two classes ; regular and irregular. 

A regular verb is a verb (hat forms the preterit 
and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed ; as, 
love, loved, loved. 

Obs. — Regular verbs form their preterit and perfect participlejby 
adding d to final e, and ed to all other terminations. 

An irregular verb is a verb that does not form 
the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d 
ored ,* as, see, saw, seen. 

Verbs are divided, with respect to their significa- 
tion, into four classes ; active transitive, active in- 
transitive, passive, and neuter. 

An active-transitive verb is a verb that expresses 
an action which has some person or thing for its ob- 
ject ; as " Cain slew Abel." 

An active-intransitive verb is a verb that express- 
es an action which has no person or thing for its ob- 
ject ; as, " John walks," 



ETYMOLOGY. 37 

?B3. T When these verbs are spoken of, without reference to 
their regimen, they are simply called active. 

A passive verb is a verb that represents its sub- 
ject, or nominative, as being acted upon ; as, " I am 
compelled." 

A neuter verb is a verb that expresses neither ac- 
tion nor passion, but simply being, or a slate of be- 
ing; as, "Thou art— he sleeps." 

.1. ° BS j~i Active -fransitive verbs generally take the agent before 
them and the object after them ; as, " Caesar conquered Pompey." 
the passive verb reverses this order, and denotes that the subject, 
or nominative, is affected by the action ; and the agent follows, be- 
ing introduced by the preposition by : as, « Pompey was conquered 

Obs. 2.— In most of our grammars and dictionaries, all active-in- 
transitive verbs are called neuter. They are here made a distinct 
class ; and those only are regarded as neuter, which imply a state 
ot existence without action. 

Obs. 3.— Most active verbs may be used either transitively or in- 
transitively. Active verbs are transitive when there is any per- 
son or thing expressed or clearly implied, upon which the action 
terminates ; when they do not govern such an object, they are in- 
transitive. J 

Obs. 4.— Some verbs may be used either in an active or a neuter 
sense. In the sentence, " Here I rest," rest is a neuter verb ; but 
m the sentence," Here I rest my hopes," rest is an active-transitive 
verb, and governs hopes. 
Obs. 5.— An active-intransitive verb,followed by a preposition and 
its object, Avill sometimes admit of being put into the passive form, 
the object of the preposition being assumed for the nominative, and 
the preposition being retained with the verb, as an adverb : as, (ac- 
tive.) « They laughed at him"—(passive,) " He was laughed at." 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Verbs have modifications of four kinds; namely, 
Moods, Tenses, Persons, and Numbers. 

MOODS. 

Moods are different forms of the verb, each of 
which expresses the being, action, orpassion,in some 
particular manner. 

There are five moods ; the Infinitive, the Indica- 
tive, the Potential, the Subjunctive, and the Impera- 
tive. * 

The Infinitive mood is that form of the verb r whfch 
expresses the being, action, or passion, in an unlira- 
5 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

rted manner, and without person or number ; as, to 
read, to speak. 

Obs .— The infinitive is distinguished by the preposition £o,which f 
with a few exceptions, immediately precedes it. In dictionaries, 
to is generally prefixed to verbs, to distinguish them from other 
parts of speech. 

The Indicative mood is that form of the verb, 
which simply indicates, or declares a thing ; as, I 
write ; you know : or asks a question ; as, Do you 
know ? 

The Potential mood is that form of the verb, 
which expresses the power, liberty, possibility, or 
necessity, of being, action, or passion: as, I can 
read ; we must go. 

Obs. 1.— This mood may also be used in asking a question; as^ 

Must we go ? ,'*,'■« 

Obs. 2.— The potential mood is known by the signs may, can, 
must, might, could, would, and should. 

The Subjunctive mood is that form of the verb, 
which represents the being, action, or passion, as 
conditional, doubtful, or contingent ; as, " If thou go, 
see that thou offend not." 

Obs. 1. — The subjunctive mood is always connected with an 
other verb. Its dependence is usually denoted by a conjunction ; 
as, if, that, though, lest, unless. 

Obs. 2. — The indicative and potential moods , in all their tenses, 
maybe used in the same dependent manner ; but this seems not to 
be a sufficient reason for considering them as parts of the subjunc- 
tive mood. 

The Imperative mood is that form of the verb, 
which is used in commanding, exhorting, entreating, 
or permitting : as," Depart thou.''— " Be comfort- 
ed." — "Forgive me." — " Go in peace." 

TENSES. 



Tenses are those modifications of the verb, which 
distinguish time. 

There are six tenses; the Present, the Imper- 
fect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, the First-future 9 md 
the Second future* 



ETYMOLOGY. 39 

The Present tense is that which expresses what now 
exists or is taking place : as, " I hear a noise ; 
somebody is coming." 

The Imperfect tense is that which expresses what 
look place,within some period of lime fully past : as, 
il We saw him last week ; 1 admired his behaviour." 

The Perfect tense is that which expresses what 
has taken place, within some period of time not yet 
fully past : as, "I have seen him to-day." 

The Pluperfect tense is that which expresses what 
had taken place, at some past time mentioned: as, 
"I had seen him, when I met you." 

The First-future tense is that which expresses 
what will lake place hereafter : as. " I shall see him 
again." 

The Second-future tense is that which expresses 
what will have taken place,at some future time men- 
tioned : as, "I shall have seen him by to-morrow 



Obs. 1. — The terms here defined are the names usually given to 
those parts of the verb to which they are applied ; and, though 
some of them are not so strictly appropriate as scientific names 
ought to be. we think it inexpedient to change them. 

Obs. 2. — The tenses do not all express time with equal precision. 
Those of the indicative mood, are the most definite. The time ex- 
pressed by the same tenses in the other moods, is frequently rela- 
tive, and sometimes indefinite. 

Obs. 3. — The present tense, in the indicative mood, expresses 
general truths, and customary actions ; as, " Vice produces mis- 
ery." — " She often visits us." We also use it in speaking of per- 
sons who are dead, but whose works remain ; as, " Seneca reasons 
well." 

Obs. 4. — The present tense in the subjunctive mood, and in the 
other moods when preceded by as soon as, after, before, till, or when, 
is generally used with reference to future time ; as, " If he ask a 
fish will he give him a stone r" — " When he arrives, I will send for 
you." 

Obs. 5. — In animated narrative, the present tense is sometimes 
substituted for the imperfect ; as, " As he lay indulging himself in 
state, he sees let down from the ceiling, a glittering sword, hung by 
a single hair." — -Ulysses wakes not knowing where he was." Pope, 

Obs. 6. — The present infinitive can scarcely be said to express 
any particular time. It is usually dependent on an other verb, and,. 
therefore, relative in time. It may become subject to any tense of 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

any mood ; as, " I intend to do it, I intended to do it, I have intend- 
ed to do it," &c. It is often used to express futurity ; as, " The time 
to come" — " The world to count" — " Rapture yeUo be." 

Obs. 7. — The imperfect tense of the indicative mood, in its sim- 
ple form, is called the preterit ; as, loved, saw, was. 

Obs. 8. — The perfect tense, like the present, is sometimes used 
with reference to future time ; as, " He will be fatigued, before he 
has walked a mile." 

Obs. 9. — The pluperfect tense is often used conditionally,without 
a conjunction ; as, " Had I seen you, I should have stopped." 

PERSONS AND NUMBERS. 

The person and number of a verb, are modifica- 
tions in which it agrees with its subject or nomina- 
tive. 

In each number, there are three persons ; and in 
each person, two numbers : thus, 

Singular. Plural. 

1st per. I love, 1st per. We love, 

2d per. Thou lovest, 2d per. You love, 
3d per. He loves ; 3d per. They love. 

Obs. 1. — Thus the verb, in some of its parts, varies its termina- 
tion to distinguish, or agree with, the different persons and num- 
bers. The change is, however, principally confined to the second 
and third persons singular of the present tense of the indicative 
mood, and to the auxiliaries hast and has of the perfect. In the an- 
cient biblical style, now used only on solemn occasions, the sec- 
ond person singular is distinguished through all the tenses of the 
indicative and potential moods. And, as the use of the pronoun 
thou is now mostly confined to the solemn style, the terminations of 
that style are retained in all our examples of the conjugation of 
verbs. In the plural number, there is no variation of ending, to de- 
note the different persons ; and the verb in the three persons plu- 
ral, is the same as in the first person singular. As the verb is al- 
ways attended by a noun or a pronoun, expressing the subject of 
the affirmation, no ambiguity arises from the want of particular ter- 
minations in the verb, to distinguish the different persons and 
numbers. 

Obs. 2. — Persons in high stations, being usually surrounded by 
attendants, it became, many centuries ago, a species of court flat- 
tery, to address individuals of this class, in the plural number. And 
the practice extended, in time, to all ranks of society : so that, at 
present, the customary mode of familiar as well as complimentary 
address, is altogether plural ; both the verb and the pronoun being 
used in that form. This practice, which confounds one of the most 
important distinctions of the language, affords a striking instance 



ETYMOLOGY. 41 

of the power of fashion. The society of Friends, however, contin- 
ue to employ the singular number in familiar discourse ; and cus- 
tom, which has now destroyed the compliment of the plural, has 
placed the appropriate form, (at least as regards them.) on an equal- 
ity with the plural in point of respect. The singular is universally 
employed in reference to the Supreme Being ; and is generally 
preferred in poetry It is the language of Scripture, and is con- 
sistently retained in all our grammars. 

Obs. 3. — As most of the peculiar terminations by which the sec- 
ond person singular of verbs is properly distinguished in the solemn 
style, are not only difficult of utterance, but are quaint and formal 
in conversation ; the preterits and auxiliaries are now seldom varied 
in familiar discourse, and the present is generally simplified by con- 
traction. A distinction between the solemn and the familiar style, 
has long been admitted, in the pronunciation of the termination ed, 
and in the ending of the verb in the third person singular ; and it is 
evidently according to good taste and the best usage, to admit 
such a distinction in the second person singular. In the familiar 
use of the second person singular, the verb is usually varied only 
in the present tense of the indicative mood, and in the auxiliary 
hast of the perfect. This method of varying the verb renders the 
second person singular analogous to the third,and accords with the 
practice of the most intelligent of those who retain the common use 
of this distinctive and consistent mode of address. It disencumbers 
their familiar dialect of a multitude of harsh and useless termina- 
tions, which serve only, when uttered, to give an uncouth prom- 
inency to words not often emphatic ; and, without impairing the 
strength or perspicuity of the language, increases its harmony, and 
reduces the form of the verb in the second person singular nearly 
to the same simplicity as in the other persons and numbers.* 



* The writings of the Friends, being mostly of a grave cast, afford but few exam- 
ples of their customary mode of forming the verb in connexion with the pronoun 
thou, in familiar discourse. The following may serve to illustrate it : "To devote all 
thoti had to his service" — " If thou should come" — "What thou said" — "Thou 
kindly contributed" — "The epistle which thou sent me" — ' Thou would perhaps 

allow"— — "If thou submitted" " Since thou left" "Shouldthou act" — "Thou 

may be ready" " That thou had met" " T hat thou had intimated" — "Before 

thou puts" [putst] — " What thou meets" [rneetst] — " If thou had made" — 
'• I observed thou -was" — " That thou might put thy trust" — " Thou had been at 
my house " J. KENDALL. " Thou may be plundered" — « That thou may 
feel" — " Though thou waited long, and sought him" — " I hope thou will bear my 
style"—" Thou also knows" [knowst]— " Thou grew up"—" I wish thou would 
yet take my counsel." S. CTtlSP. " Thou manifested thy tender regard, stretch- 
ed forth thy delivering hand, and fed and sustained us." FOTHERGILL. 
The writer has met with thousands that used the second person singular 
in conversation, but never with one that employed, on ordinary occasions, all 
the regular endings of the solemn style. The simplification of the second person 
singular, which, to a greater or less extent, is every where adopted by the 
Friends, and which is here limited, defined, and justified, removes from each verb 
eighteen of these peculiar terminations; and, (if the number of English verbs be, 
as stated by several grammarians, 4300,) disburdens their familiar dialect of 77,400 
of these awkward and useless appendages. This simplification is supported by 
usage as extensive as the familiaf use of the pronoun thou; and is also in accord- 
ance with the canons of criticism. " All words and phrases which are remarkably 
harsh and unharmonious, and not absolutely necessary, should be rejected." 
C'ampbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric, Sec. 2. Canon First, 

5 * 



42 ENOLISH GRAMMAR. 

The second person singular is regularly formed by ad- 
ding s£ or est to the fust person; and the third person sin- 
gular, in like manner, by adding s or es : as, I see, thou 
seest, he sees ; I give, thou givest, he gives ; I go, thou 
goest, he goes ; I fly, thou flicst, he flies; I vex, thou vex- 
est, he vexes ; I lose, thou losest, he Zose.s. 

Obs. 1. — In the solemn style, (except in poetry, which usually 
contracts* these forms,) the second person singular of the present 
indicative, and that of the irregular preteritsf, commonly end 



Some of the Friends (perhaps from an idea that it is less formal) misemploy thee 
for Mow,and often join it to the third person of the verb instead of the second. Such 
expressions as,ihee does, thee is, thee has, thee thinks, &c. are double solecisms ; they 
set all grammar at defiance. Many persons who are not ignorant of grammar,and 
iv ho employ the pronoun aright, sometimes improperly sacrifice concord to a 
slight improvement in sound, and give to the verb the ending of the third person, 
for that of the second. Three instances of this occur in t he examples quoted in the 
preceding paragraph. See also the following, and many more, in the works of R. 
Kurns, who says of himself, " Though it cost the schoolmaster some thrashings, I 
made an excellent English scholar; and, by the time I was ten or eleven years of 
age, I was a critic in substantives, verbs, and particles :" — " But when thou pours" 
— " There thou shines chief" — " Thou clears the head"—" Thou strings the 
nerves" — " Thou brightens black despair" — " Thou comes''— il Thou travels far" 
— "Thou paints" — "Unseen thou lurks" — «0 thou pale orb that silent shines." 
This mode of simplifying the verb, confounds the persons ; and, as it has little 
advantage in sound, over the regular contracted form of the second person, it 
ought to be avoided. It is too frequently used by the poets. 

* The second person singular may be contracted, whenever the verb ends in a 
sound which will unite with that of st. The poets generally employ the contract- 
ed forms, but they seem not to have adopted a uniform and consistent method of 
writing them. Some insert the apostrophe, and double the final consonant, before 
st ; as, hold'st, bidd'st, said'st, ledd'st, rnay'st, might'' st, <$-c. : others add st only, and 
form permanent contractions; as, holdst, bidst,saidst,ledst, mayst,mightst, $-c. 
Some retain the vowel in the termination of certain words, and suppress a pre- 
ceding one; as, quick'nest, happ'nest, scatt'rest, slumb'rest, slumb' rtdst ; others 
contract the termination of such words, and insert the apostrophe ; as, quicken' st, 
happen' st, scatier'st, slumber' st, slumber'dst. The nature of our language, the ac- 
cent and pronunciation of it, incline us to contract even all our regular verbs ; so 
as to avoid, if possible, an increase of syllables in the inflection of them. Accord- 
ingly, several terminations which formerly constituted distinct syllables, have 
been either wholly dropped, or blended with the final syllables of the verbs to 
which they are added. Thus the plural termination en has become entirely ob- 
solete ; th or eth is no longer in common use ; ed is contracted in pronunciation ; 
the ancient ys or is, of the third person singular, is changed to s or es, and is usual- 
ly added without increase of syllables ; and s* or est has, in part, adopted the analo- 
gy. So that the proper mode of forming these contractions of the second person 
singular, seems to be, to add si only, and to insert the apostrophe, when a vowel 
is suppressed from the verb to which this termination is added ; as, thinks t,sayst, 
hulst, lov'si, lov'dst, slumberst, slumber' dst. 

f Some grammarians say, that, whenever the preterit is like the present, it 
should take edst for the second person singular. This rule gives us such words 
a> cast-edst, cost-edst, bid-dedst, bvrit-edst, cut-tedst, hit-tedst, let-tedst, put-tedst, 
J:url-edst,ricL-dedst,shed-dedst, S,-c. The few examples which may be adduced from 
ancient writings, in support of this rule, are undoubtedly formed in the usual man- 
nor from regular preterits now obsolete ; and, if this were not the case, no person 
of taste could think of employing derivatives so uncouth. Dr. Johnson has justly 
remarked, that "the chief defect of our language, is ruggedness and asperity." 
And this defect is peculiarly obvious, when even the regular termination of the 
second person singular, is added to our preterits. Accordingly we find numerous 
instances, among thepoets, In which that termination is ommitted, even in the sol- 
emn style. 



ETYMOLOGY. 43 

in est, pronounced as a separate syllable. But, as the termination 
ed, in solemn discourse, constitutes a syllable, the regular preterits 
form the second person singular by adding st, without further in- 
crease of syllables ; as, loved, lovedst-^-not, lovedest. Dost and hast, 
and the irregular preterits wast, didst, and hadst, are permanently 
contracted. The auxiliaries shall and ivill, change the final I to t. 
To the auxiliaries may, can, might, could, would, and should, the 
termination est was formerly added ; but they are now generally 
written with st only, and pronounced as monosyllables, even in 
solemn discourse. 

Obs. 2. — The third person singular was anciently formed by ad- 
ding th to verbs ending in e, and eth to all others. This method of 
forming the third person singular, always adds a syllable to the 
verb. It is now confined to the solemn style, and is little used. 
Doth, hath, and saith, are contractions of verbs thus formed. 

Obs. 3. — When the second person singular is employed in famil- 
iar discourse, it is usually formed in a manner strictly analogous 
to that which is now adopted in the third person singular. When 
the verb ends in a sound which will unite with that of st or s, the 
second person singular, is formed by adding st only, and the third, 
by adding s only; and the number of syllables is not increased : 
as, I read, thou readst, he reads ; I know, thou knowst,he knows ; 
I take, thou takest^te takes. When the verb ends in mute e.no ter- 
mination renders this e vocal in the familiar style, if a syneeresis 
can take place. 

Obs. 4. — But when the verb ends in a sound which will not unite 
with that of st or s, st and 5 are added to final e, and est and es to 
other terminations ; and the verb acquires an additional syllable : 
as, I trace, thou tracest, he traces ; I pass, thou passest, he passes; I 
fix, thou fixest, he fixes. But verbs ending in o or 3/ preceded by a 
consonant, do not exactly follow this rule : in these, y is changed 
into i ; and, to both and i, est and es are added without increase 
of syllables : as, I go, thou goest, he goes ; I undo, thou undoest,* he 
undoes ; I fly, thou jliest, he flies ; I pity, Xhow pitiest, he pities. 

Obs 5. — The formation of the third person singular of verbs, is 
precisely the same as that of the plural number of nouns. [See 
page 20.] 

Obs. 6. — The auxiliaries do, doest or dost, does, [pronounced doo, 
dust, duz,] — am, art, is, — have, hast, has, — being also in frequent use 
as principal verbs of the present tense, retain their peculiar form, 
when joined to other verbs. The other auxiliaries are not varied, 
except in the solemn style. 

Obs.7 . — The only regular terminations that are added to verbs, 
are ing, d or ed, st or est, s or es, th or eth. Ing, and th or eth, al- 
ways add a syllable to the verb ; except in doth, hath, saith. The 
rest, whenever their sound will unite with that of the final syllable 
of the verb, are added without increasing the number of syllables ; 
otherwise, they are separately pronounced. In solemn discourse, 

* The second person singular of the simple verb do, is now usually Written dost; 
being contracted in orthography, as well as in pronunciation. This anomaly seems 
unnecessary. 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

however, edand est are, by most speakers, uttered distinctly in all 
cases; except, sometimes, when a vowel precedes. 

CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

The conjugation of a verb is a regular arrange- 
ment of its moods, tenses, persons, numbers, and 
participles. 

Obs. — The moods and tenses are formed partly by inflections, or 
changes made in the verb itself, and partly by the combination of 
the verb or its participle, with a few short verbs, called auxiliaries, 
or helping verbs. 

There are four principal parts in the conjugation 
of every simple and complete verb; nanielj,the Pres- 
ent, the Preterit, the Imperfect Participle, and the 
Perfect Participle. A verb which wants any of 
these parts, is called defective* 

Obs. — The present is radically the same in all the moods, and is 
the part from which all the rest are formed. The present infinitive 
is the root, or simplest form, of the verb. The preterit and the 
perfect participle are regularly formed by adding d or ed, and the 
imperfect participle by adding ing, to the present. 

An auxiliary is a short verb prefixed to one of 
the principal parts of an other verb, to express some 
particular mode and time of the being, action, or 
passion. The auxiliaries are do, be, have, shall, 
will, may, can, and must, with their variations. 

Obs. — Do, be, an&have, being also principal verbs, are complete: 
but the participles of do and have, are not used as auxiliaries,unless 
having, which forms the compound participle, may be considered 
as such. The other auxiliaries have no participles. 

Verbs are conjugated in the following manner. 

Conjugation of the regular active verb 

LOVE. 

Principal Parts, 

Present. Preterit. Imper. Participle* Perfect Participle* 
Love. Loved. Loving. Loved. 



ETYMOLOGY. 45 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

The infinitive mood is that form of the verb, which expresses the 
being, action, or passion, in an unlimited manner, and without per- 
son or number. It is used only in the present and perfect tenses. 

Present Tense, 

To love. 

Perfect Tense, 

To have loved. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

The Indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indi- 
cates or declares a thing, or asks a question. It is used in all the 
tenses. 

Present Tense, 

Singular, Plural. 

1st per. I love, 1st per. We love, 

2d per. Thou lovest, 2d per. You love, 

3d per. He loves ; 3d per. They love. 

This tense may also be formed by prefixing the auxili- 
ary do to the verb : thus, 

Singular, Plural. 

1. I do love, 1. We do love, 

2. Thou dost love, 2. You do love, 

3. He does love ; 3. They do love. 

Imperfect Tense. 

This tense, in its simple form, is the preterit. In all regular verbs. 
it adds d or ed to the present : thus, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I loved, 1. We loved, 

2. Thoulovedst, 2. You loved, 

3. He loved ; 3. They loved. 

This tense may also be formed by prefi xing the auxili- 
ary did to the present : thus, 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Singular. Plural. 

1.1 did love, 1. We did love, 

2. Thou didst love, 2. You did love, 

3. He did love; 3- They did love! 

Obs. — In a familiar question or negation, the compound form is 
preferable to the simple. But in the solemn or the poetic style, the 
simple form is more dignified and graceful : as " Understandest thou 
what thou readest ?" — " Of whom speaketh the prophet this ?" — Acts 
viii. 30,34. " Heard ye not of lowland war ?" — Scott. 

Perfect Tense. 

This tense prefixes the auxiliary have to the perfect participle : 
thus, 

Singular, Plural. 

1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 

2. Thou hast loved, 2. You have loved, 

3. He has loved ; 3. They have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

This tense prefixes the auxiliary had to the perfect participle : 
thus, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 

2. Thou hadst loved, 2, You had loved, 

3. He had loved ; 3. They had loved. 

First-future Tense. 
This tense prefixes the auxiliary shall or will to the present : thus. 

1. Simply to express a future action or event : 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall love, 1. We shall love, 

2. Thou wilt love, 2. You will love, 

3. He will love ; 3. They will love. 

2. To express a promise, volition, command, or threat : 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I will love, 1. We will love, 

2. Thou shalt love, 2. You shall love, s 

3. He shall love ; 3. They shall love. 



ETYMOLOGY. 47 

Obs. — In interrogative sentences,the meaning of these auxiliaries 
is reversed. When preceded by a conjunction implying condition 
or uncertainty, their import is somewhat varied. 

Second-future Tense, 

This tense prefixes the auxiliaries shall have or will have to the 
perfect participle : thus, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have loved, 1. We shall have loved 8 
2 Thou wilt have loved, 2. You will have loved, 
3. He will have loved; 3. They will have loved. 

Obs. — The auxiliary shall may also be used in the second and third 
persons of this tense, when preceded by a conjunction expressing 
condition or contingency ; as, " If he shall have finished his work* 
when I return." 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

The potential mood is that form of the verb, which expresses the 
power, liberty, possibility, or necessity, of being, action, or pas* 
sion. It is used in the first four tenses. 

Present Tense. 

This tense prefixes the auxiliary may, can, or must, to the radical 
verb : thus, 

Singular, Plural. 

1. I may love, 1. We may love, 

2. Thou mayst love, 2. You may love 9 

3. He may love; 3. They may love. 

Imperfect Tense. 

This tense prefixes the auxiliary might, could,, would, or should, 
to the radical verb : thus, 

Singular* Plural. 

1. I might love, 1. We might love, 

2. Thou mightst love, 2. You might love, 
,■■ 3. He might love ; 3. They might love. 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



Perfect Tense, 

This tense prefixes the auxiliaries, may have, can 
have, to the perfect participle : thus, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have loved, 1. We may have loved, 

2. Thou mayst have loved, 2. You may have loved, 

3. He may have loved; 3. They may have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

This tense prefixes the auxiliaries, might have, could have, would 
have, or should have, to the perfect participle : thus, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have loved, 1. We might have loved, 

2. Thou mightst have loved, 2. You might have loved, 

3. He might have loved; 3. They might have loved. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



The subjunctive mood is that form of the verb, which represents 
the being, action, or passion, as conditional, doubtful, or contin- 
gent. This mood is generally preceded by a conjunction ; as, if, 
that, though, lest, unless, &tc. It does not vary its termination, in the 
different persons. Itisusedin the present, and sometimes in the im- 
perfect tense ; rarely in any other. As this mood can be used only 
in a dependent clause, the time implied in its tenses is always rela- 
tive, and generally indefinite. 

Present Tense. 

This tense is generally used to express some condition on which 
a future action or event is affirmed, and is therefore considered by 
some grammarians, as an elliptical form of the future. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I love, 1. If we love, 

2. If thou love, 2. If you love, 

3. If he love ; 3. If they love. 

Obs. — In this tense, the auxiliary do is sometimes employed ; as, 
rt If thou do prosper my way."— Gen. xxiv. 42. "If he do notutte.fr 
it." — Lev. v. I, 



ETYMOLOGY* 49 

Imperfect Tense. 

This tense, as well as the imperfect of the potential mood, with 
which it is frequently connected, is properly an aorist, or indefinite 
tense ; and it may refer to time past, present, or future : as, " If there- 
fore perfection were by the Levitical priesthood, what further need 
was there," &c. — Heb. vii. 11. "If the whole body were an eye, 
where were the hearing?" — 1 Cor.xh.17. "If it were possible, 
they shall deceive the very elect." — Matt. xxiv. 24. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I loved, 1. If we loved, 

2. If thou loved, 2. If you loved, 

3. If he loved, 2. If they loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

The imperative mood is that form of the verb, which is used in 
commanding, exhorting, entreating, or permitting. It is commonly 
used only in the second person of the present tense. In poetry or 
poetic prose, we sometimes find the first and third persons ; as, 
"My soul, turn from them — turn we to survey," &c. — Goldsmith. 
'• Fall he that must, beneath hi& rival's arms, 
" And live the rest, secure of future harms." — Pope. 
' ; Blessed be he that blesseth thee." — " Thy kingdom come." — Bible, 



Present Tense. 

Singular. 2. Love [thou], or Do thou love. 

Plural. 2. Love [ye or you], or Do you love. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect, Loving. 

Perfect, Loved. 

Compound, Raviog loved, 

SYNOPSIS. 

First Person Singular. 

Ind. I love, I loved, I have loved, I had loved, I 
shall love, I shall have !ove<i. Pot. I may love, I might 
love, I may have loved r I might have loved. Subj. if I 
love, If I loved. 

6 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Second Person Singular. 

Ind. Thou lovest, Thou lovedst, Thou hast loved, 
Thou hadst loved, Thou wilt love, Thou wilt have loved. 
Pot. Thou mayst love, Thou mightst love, Thou raayst 
have loved, Thou mightst have loved. Subj. If thou 
love, If thou loved. Imp. Love [thou], or Do thou love. 

Third Person Singular. 

Ind. He loves, He loved, He has loved, He had loved, 
He will love, He will have loved. Pot. He may love, 
He might love, He may have loved, He might have loved. 
Subj. If he love, If he loved. 

First Person Plural. 

Ind. We love, We loved, We have loved, We had loved, 
We shall love, We shall have loved. Pot. We may love, 
We might love, We may have loved, We might have 
loved. Subj. If we love, If we loved. 

Second Person Plural. 

Ind. You love, You loved, You have loved, You had 
loved, You will love, You will have loved. Pot. You 
may love, You might love, You may have loved, You 
might have loved. Subj. If you love, If you loved. Tmpo 
Love [ye or you], or Do you love. 

Third Person Plural. 

Ind. They love, They loved, They have loved, They 
bad loved, They will love, They will have loved. Pot. 
They may love, They might love, They may have loved, 
They might have loved. Subj. If they love, If they 
loved. 

Obs. — Tn the familiar style, the second person singular of this 
verb, is usually formed thus: Ind. Thou lov'st, Thou loved, Thou 
hast loved, Thou had loved, Thou will love, Thou will have loved, 
Pot. Thou may love, Thou might love, Thou may have loved. 
Thou might have loved. Suj. If thou love, If thou loved. Imp. 
Love [thou], or Do thou love. 



ETYMOLOGY. 51 



Conjugation of the irregular active verb 


- 


SEE. 


esent. Preterit 
5ee. Saw. 


Principal Parts. 

. Imp. Participle. Perf. Participle, 
Seeing. Seen. 


INFINITIVE MOOD. 




Present Tense. 




To see. 




Perfect Tense, 
To have seen. 


INDICATIVE MOOD. 




Present Tense. 


Singular. 

1. I see, 

2. Thou seest, 

3. He sees ; 


Plural. 

1. We see, 

2. You see, 

3. They see. 



Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I saw, 1. We saw, 

2. Thou sawest, 2. You saw, 

3. He saw ; 3. They saw. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have seeD, 1. We have seen, 

2. Thou hast seen, 2. You have seen, 

3. He has seen ; 3. They have seen. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had seen, 1. We had seen, 

2. Thou hadst seen, 2. You had seen, 

3. He had seen; 3. They had seen. 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

First-future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall see, 1. We shall see, 

2. Thou wilt see, 2. You will see, 

3. He will see ; 3. They will see. 

Second-future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have seen, 1. We shall have seen, 

2. Thou wilt have seeD, 2. You will have seeD, 

3. He will have seen ; 3. They will have seen. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may see, 1. We may see, 

2. Thou mayst see, 2. You may see, 

3. He may see ; 3. They may see. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might see, 1. We might see, 

2. Thou mightst see, 2. You might see, 

3. He might see; 3. They might see. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have seen, 1. W r e may have seen, 

2. Thou mayst have seen, 2. You may have seen, 

3. He may have seen; 3. They may have seen. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have seen, 1. We might have seen, 

2. Thou mightst have seen, 2. You might have seen, 

3. He might have seen ; 3. They might have seen. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I see, 1. If we see, 

2. If thou see, 2. If you see, 

3. If he see: 3, If they see. 



ETYMOLOGY. 53 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural, 

1. If I saw, 1. If we saw, 

2. If thou saw, 2. If you saw, 

3. If he saw; 3. If they saw. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. 2. See [thou], or Do thou see. 

Plural. 2. See [ye or you], or Do you see. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect, Seeing. 
Perfect, Seen. 

Compound, Having seen. 

Obs. — In the familiar style, the second person singular of this 
verb is usually formed thus: Ind. Thou seest, Thou saw, Thou 
hast seen, Thou had seen, Thou will see, Thou will have seen. 
Pot. Tbou may see, Thou might see, Thou may have seen, Thou 
might have seen. Sub j. If thou see, If thou saw. Imp. See [thou], 
or Do thou see. 

Conjugation of the irregular neuter verb 

BE. 

Principal Parts. 

Present* Preterit. Imp. Participle. Perf. Participle, 
Be. Was. Being. Been. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
To be. 

Perfect Tense. 

To have been. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Obs. — Be was formerly used in the indicative present: as, " What 
be these two olive branches V'—Zech. iv. 12. But this construction 
is now obsolete. 

6* 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Singular. Plural. 

II am, l. We are, 

2. Thou art, 2. You are, 

3. He is; 3. They are. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1'. I was, 1. We were, 

2. Thou wast, 2. You were, 

8. He was; 3. They were. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

h I have beeD, 1. We have been, 

2. Thou hast been, 2. You have been, 

3. He has been ; 3. They have been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been, 1. We had been, 

2. Thou hadst been, 2. You had been, 

3. He had been; 3. They had been. 





First-future Tense. 




Singular. Plural. 


1. 


I shall be, I, "We shall be, 


2. 


Thou wilt be, 2. You will be, 


3. 


He will be; 3. They will be. 




Second-future Tense. 




Singular. Plural. 


1. 


I shall have been, 1 . We shall have been, 


2. 


Thou wilt have been, 2. You will have been, 


3. 


He will have been ; 3. They will have been. 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be, 1. We may be, 

2. Thou raayst be, 2. You may be, 

3. He may be ; 3. They may be. 



ETYMOLOGY. 55 

Imperfect Vense, 

Singular, Plural. 

1. I might be, 1. We might be, 

2. Thou mightst be, 2. You might be, 

3. He might be ; 3 They might be. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular, Plural. 

1. I may have been, 1. We may have been, 

2. Thou mayst have been, 2. You may have been, 

3. He may have been; 3 They may have been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have been, 1. We might have been, 

2. Thou mightst have been, 2. You might have been, 

3. He might have been ; 3. They might have been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 







Present Tense, 


]. 

2. 
3. 


Singular. 
If I be, 
If thou be, 
If he be ; 


Plural. 

1 . If we be, 

2. If you be, 

3. If they be. 


}. 
2. 
3. 


Singular, 
If I were, 
If thou wert, 
If he were ; 


Imperfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1 . If we were, 

2. If you were, 

3. If they were. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 




Singular 
Plural. 


, 2. Be [thou], or Do thou be 
2. Be [ye or you], or Do you be. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect, Being. 
Perfect, Beeu. 
Compound, Having beec 



5ii ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Obs. — In the familiar style, the second person singular of this 
verb, is usually formed thus: Ind. Thou art, Thou was, Thou hast 
been, Thou had been, Thou will be, Thou will have been. Pot 
Thou may be, Thou might be, Thou may have been, Thou might 
have been. Subj. If thou be, If thou were. Imp. Be [thou], or 
Do thou be. 

Active and neuter verbs may also be conjugated, 
by adding the Imperfect Participle to the auxiliary 
verb be, through ail its changes ; as I am writing — 
He is sitting. This form of the verb denotes a con- 
tinuance^ of the action or the state of being, and is, 
on many occasions, preferable to the simple form of 
the verb. 

Gbs. Verbs of this form have sometimes a passive signification ; 
as, "While the work of the temple was carrying on." — Owen. 
Expressions of this kind are condemned by some critics. 

Example of the Compound Form of the active verb 

READ. 

Principal Parts of the Simple Verb. 

Present Preterit. Imp. Participle. Perf. Participle, 
Read. Read. Reading. Read. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
To be reading. 

Perfect Tense. 
To have been reading. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I am reading, 1. We are reading, 

2. Thou art reading, 2. You are reading, 

3. He is reading; 3. They are reading. 



* Those verbs which, in their simple form, imply continuance, do not admit the 
compound form ; thus we say, 4 1 respect him ;' but not, ' I am respecting him. 



ETYMOLOGY. 57 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I was reading, 1. We were reading, 

2. Thou wast reading, 2. You were reading, 

3. He was reading; 3. They were reading. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been reading, l.We have been reading, 

2. Thou hast been reading, 2. You have been reading, 

3. He has been reading; 3. They have been reading. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 . I had been reading, 1 . We had been reading, 

2. Thou hadst been reading, 2. You had been reading, 

3. He had been reading; 3. They had been reading. 

First-future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall be reading, 1. We shall be reading, 

2. Thou wilt be reading, 2. You will be reading, 

3. He will be reading; 3. They will be reading. 

Second-future Tense. 

Singular. 1. I shall have been reading, 

2. Thou wilt have been reading, 

3. He will have been reading; 

Plural. 1. We shall have been reading, 
2 You will have been reading, 
3. They will have been reading 



s» 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

I.I may be reading, l.We may be reading, 

2. Thou mayst be reading, 2. You may be reading, 

3. He may be reading ; 3. They may be reading. 



58 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might be reading, 1. We might be reading, 

2. Thou mightst be reading, 2. You might be reading, 

3. He might be reading; 3. They might be reading. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. 1 I may have been reading, 

2. Thou mayst have been reading, 

3. He may have been reading; 



Plural. 



1. We 

2. You 

3. They 



may 
may 
may 



have been reading, 
have been reading, 
have been reading. 



Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. 1. I might have been reading, 

2. Thou mightst have been reading, 

3. He might have been reading ; 



Plural. 



1. We might 

2. You might 

3. They might 



have been reading, 
have been reading, 
have been reading. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Present Tense. 



Singular. 
A. If I be reading, 

2. If thou be reading, 

3. If he be reading; 



Plural. 

1. If we be reading, 

2. If you be reading, 

3. If they be reading. 



Imperfect Tense. 



Singular. 

1. If I were reading. 

2. If thou wert reading, 

3. If he were reading; 



Plural. 

1 . If we were reading, 

2. If you were reading, 

3. If they were reading. 



ETYMOLOGY. 5Q 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

Sing. 2. Be [thou] reading, or Do thou be reading. 
Plur. 2. Be [ye or you] reading, or Do you be reading. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect, Being reading. 

Perfect, 

Compound, Having been reading. 

Obs. — In the familiar style, the second person singular of this 
verb, is usually formed thus : Ind. Thou art reading, Thou was 
reading, Thou hast been reading, Thou had been reading, Thou 
will be reading, Thou will have been reading. Pot. Thou may 
be reading, Thou might be reading, Thou may have been reading, 
Thou might have been reading. Subj. If thou be reading, If thou 
were reading. Imp. Be [thou] reading, or Do thou be reading, 

PASSIVE VERBS. 

Passive verbs are formed from active-transitive 
verbs, by adding the Perfect Participle to the auxil- 
iary verb be, through all its changes : thus, from the 
active- transitive verb love, is formed the passive verb 
be loved. 

Obs. 1. — A few active-intransitive verbs that merely imply mo- 
lion, or change of condition, maybe put into this form, with a 
neuter signification ; making not passive but neuter verbs, which ex- 
press nothing more than the state which results from the change : 
as, I am come ; He is risen ; They are /alien- 
ors. 2. — Passive verbs may be distinguished from neuter verbs of 
the same form, by a reference to the agent or instrument ; which 
frequently is, and always may be, expressed after passive verbs : 
as, " The thief has been caught by the officer." — " Pens are made 
with a knife." 

Conjugation of the passive verb 
BE LOVED. 

Principal Parts of the Active Vcrh. 

Present. Preterit. Imp. Participle. Perf. Participle, 
Love. Loved. Loving. Loved. 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, 

To be loved. 

Perfect Tense, 

To have been loved, 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

i. I am loved, 1. We are loved, 

2. Thou art loved, 2. You are loved, 

3. He is loved ; 3. They are loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I was loved, 1. We were loved, 

2. Thou wast loved, 2. You were loved, 

3. He was loved; 3. They were loved. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

i. I have beeo loved, 1. We have been loved, 

2. Thou hast beeD loved, 2. You have been loved, 

3. He has been loved ; 3. They have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been loved, l.We had been loved, 

2. Thou hadst been loved, 2. You had been loved, 

3. He had beeu loved ; 3. They had been loved. 

' Fir si future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall be loved, 1. We shall be loved, 

2. Thou wilt be loved, 2, You will be loved, 

3. He will beloved; 3. They will beloved. 



ETYMOLOGY. 6.1 

Second-future Tense* 

Singular. 1.1 shall have been loved, 

2. Thou wilt have been loved, 

3. He will have been loved; 

Plural. 1. We shall have been loved, 

2. You will have been loved, 

3. They will have been loved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be loved, 1. We may be loved, 

2. Thou mayst be loved, 2. You may be loved, 

3. He may be loved; 3. They may be loved. 

Imperfect Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might beloved, 1* We might be loved, 

2. Thou mightst be loved, 2. You might be loved, 

3. He might be loved; 3. They might be loved. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. 1. I may have been loved, 

2. Thou mayst have been loved, 

3. He may have been loved ; 

Plural. 1 . We may have been loved, 

2. You may have been loved, 

3. They may have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. 1. I might have been loved, 

2. Thou mightst have been loved, 

3. He might have been loved ; 

Plural. 1. We might have been loved, 

2. You might have been loved, 

3. They might have been loved. 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural 

1. If I beloved, 1. Ifwc beloved, 

2. If thou be loved, 2. If you beloved, 

3. If he beloved; 3. If they be loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were loved, 1. If we were loved, 

2. If thou wert loved, 2. If you were loved, 

3. If he were loved ; 3. If they were loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Sing. 2. Be [thou] loved, or Do thou be loved. 
Plur. 2. Be [ye or you] loved, or Do you be loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect, Being loved. 

Perfect^ Loved. 

Compound^ Having been loved. 

Obs. — In the familiar style, the second person singular of this 
verb, is usually formed thus : Ind. Thou art loved, Thou was loved, 
Thou hast been loved, Thou had been loved, Thou will be loved, 
Thou will have been loved. Pot. Thou may be loved, Thou might 
be loved, Thou may have been loved, Thou might have been loved. 
Sub j. If thou be loved, If thou were loved. Imp. Be [thou] loved, 
or Do thou be loved. 

A verb is conjugated negatively, by placing the adverb 
not after it, or after the first auxiliary. In the infinitive 
mood, the abverb must always precede the preposition to. 
Thus : Inf. Not to love, Not to have loved. Ind. I love 
not, or J do not love, I loved not, or I did not love, I have 
not loved, I had not loved, I shall not love, I shall not 
have loved. Pot. I may, cau*, or must not love ; I might, 

* When power is denied, can and not are united, to prevent ambiguity ; as, " I 
cannot go." But when the power is affirmed, and something else is denied, the 
words are written separately ; as, " The Christian apologist can not mereJy expose 
the utter baseness of the infidel assertion, but he has possitive ground for erect" 
?iog an opposite and a confronting assertion in its place."— Chalmers. 



ETYMOLOGY. 63 

could, would, or should not love; I may, can, or must not 
have loved ; I might, could, would, or should not have lov- 
ed. Subj. If I love not, If I loved not. Part. Not lov- 
ing, Not loved, Not having loved. 

A verb is conjugated interrogatively, in the indicative 
and potential moods, by placing the nominative after it, or 
after the first auxiliary : as, Tnd. Do I love ? Did I love? 
Have i loved ? Had I loved ? Shall I love ? Shall I have 
loved ? Pot. May, can, or must I love ? Might, could, 
would, or should 1 love ? May, can, or must I have loved? 
Might, could, would, or should I have loved ? 

A verb is conjugated interrogatively and negatively, in 
the indicative and potential moods, by placing the nomi- 
native and the adverb not after the verb, or after the first 
auxiliary : as, Ind. Do I not love ? Did I not love ? Have 
I not loved ? Had I not loved ? Shall I not love ? Shall I 
not have loved ? Pot. May,can,or must I not love ? Might, 
could, would, or should I not love ? May, can, or must I 
not have loved ? Might, could, would, or should I not have 
loved ? 

IRREGULAR VERBS. 

An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the 
preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or erf. 

Obs. 1. — When the verb ends in a sharp consonant, t is some- 
times improperly substituted for ed, making the ! preterit and the 
perfect participle irregular in spelling, when they are not so in 
sound; as, distrest for distressed. 

Obs. 2. — Several of the irregular verbs are variously used by the 
best authors; and many preterits and participles Avhich were for- 
merly in good use, are now obsolete, ar becoming so. 

The simple irregular verbs are nearly all monosylla- 
bles. They are derived from the Saxon, in which lan- 
guage they are also, for the most part, irregular. The 
following is a list of them, as they are now generally used. 
Those marked with the letter R, admit also the regular 
form. 



Present. 


Preterit. 


Imp. Part. Perf. Part, 


Abide, 


abode, 


abiding, abode. 


Be, 


was, 


being, been. 



64 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 

Bear, 

Beat, 

Begin, 

Bend, 

Beseech, 

Bid, 

Bind, 

Bite, 

Bleed, 

Blow, 

Break, 

Breed, 

Bring, 

Build, 

Burst, 

Buy, 

Cast, 

Catch, 

Chide, 

Choose, 

Cleave,! 

Cling, 

Clothe, 

Come, 

Cost, 

Crow, 

Creep, 

Cut, 

Dare, 

Deal, 

Do, 

Draw, . 

Dream, 

Drive, 

Drink, 

Dwell, 



Preterit. 


Imp. Part. 


bore or bare, 


bearing, 


beat, 


beating, 


began, 


beginning, 


bent, R. 


bending, 


besought, 


beseeching, 


bid or bade, 


bidding, 


bound, 


binding, 


bit, 


biting, 


bled, 


bleeding, 


blew, 


blowing, 


broke, 


breaking, 


bred, 


breeding, 


brought, 


bringing, 


built, R. 


building, 


burst, 


bursting, 


bought, 


buying, 


cast, 


casting, 


caught, R. 


catching, 


chid, 


chiding, 


chose, 


choosing, 


cleft or clove, 


cleaving, 


clung, 


i clinging, 


clothed or clad, 


clothing, 


came, 


coming, 


cost, 


costing, 


crowed or crew, 


crowing, 


crept, R. 


creeping, 


cut, 


cutting, 


dared or durst, 


daring, 


dealt, R. 


dealing, 


dug, R. 


digging, 


did, 


doing, 


drew, 


draAving, 


dreamt, R. 


dreaming, 


drove, 


driving, 


drank, 


drinking, 


dwelt, R. 


dwelling, 



Per/. Part. 

borne or born.* 

beateu or beat. 

begun. 

bent, R. 

besought. 

bidden or bid. 

bound. 

bitten or bit. 

bled. 

blown. 

broken. 

bred. 

brought. 

built, R. 

burst. 

bought. 

cast. 

caught, R. 

chidden or chid. 

chosen. 

cleft or cloven. 

clung. 

clothed or clad 

come. 

cost. 

crowed. 

crept, R. 

cut. 

dared. 

dealt, R, 

dug, R. 

done. 

drawn. 

dreamt, R. 

driven. 

drunk. 

dwelt, R. 



* Borne signifies carried ; born signifies brought forth. 

| Cleave, to split, is irrregular as above; cleave, to stick, is regular, but clavs 



was formerly used in the preterit. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



65 



Present. 

Eat, 

Fall, 

Feed, 

Feel, 

Fight, 

Fiad, 

Flee, 

Fling, 

Ely, 

Forsake, 

Freeze, 

Get, 

Gild, 

Gird, 

Give, 

Go, 

Grave, 

Grind, 

Grow, 

Hang, 

Have, 

Hear, 

Heave, 

Hew, 

Hide, 

Hit, 

Hold, 

Hurt, 

Kneel, 

Knit, 

Know, 

Lade, 

Lay, 

Lean, 

Lead, 

Leave, 

Lend, 

Let, 

Lie, 

Light, 

Lose, 



Preterit. 

ate or eat, 

felt, 

fed, 

felt, 

fought, 

found, 

fled, 

flung, 

flew, 

forsook, 

froze, 

got, 

gilt, R. 

girt, R. 

gave, 

went, 

graved, 

ground, 

grew, 

hung, R. 

had, 

heard, 

heaved or hove, 

hewed, 

hid, 

hit, 

held, 

hurt, 

koeeled or knelt, 

knit, R. 

knew, 

laded, 

laid, 

leaned or leant, 

led, 

left, 

lent, 

let, 

lay, 

lighted or lit, 

lost, 



Imp. Part. 
eating, 
falling, 
feeding, 
feeling, 
fighting, 
finding, 
fleeing, 
flinging, 
flyi'ig, 
forsaking, 
freezing, 
getting, 
gilding, 
girding, 
giving, 
going, 
graving, 
grinding, 
growing, 
hanging, 
having, 
hearing, 
heaving, 
hewing, 
hiding, 
liitting, 
holding, 
hurting, 
kneeling, 
knittiug, 
knowing, 
lading, 
laying, 
leaning, 
leading, 
leaving, 
lending, 
letting, 
lying, 
lighting, 
losing, 
7 * 



Per/. Part. 

eaten. 

faiien. 

fed. 

felt, 

fought. 

found. 

fled. 

fluug, 

flown. 

forsaken. 

frozen. 

got or gotten. 

gilt, R. 

girt, R. 

given. 

gone. 

graved or graven, 

ground. 

grown. 

hung, R. 

had. 

heard. 

heaved or hoven. 

hewed or hewn. 

hidden or hid. 

hit. 

held. 

hurt, 

kneeled or knelt. 

knit, R. 

known. 

laden, R. 

laid. 

leaned or leant,, 

led, 

left. 

lent. 

let. 

lain. 

lighted or lit. 

lost. 



66 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



Present. 


Preterit. 


Imp. Part, 


Perf. Part 


Make, 


made, 


making, 


made. 


Mean, 


meant, R. 


meaning, 


meant, R. 


Meet, 


met, 


meeting, 


met. 


Mow, 


mowed, 


mowing, 


mowed or mown. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paying, 


paid. 


Put, 


put, 


putting, 


put. 


Q,uit, 


quitted or quit, 


quitting, 


quitted or quit. 


Read, 


read, 


reading. 


read. 


Reave, 


reft R. 


reaving, 


reft, R. 


Rend, 


rent, 


rending, 


rent. 


Rid, 


rid, 


ridding, 


rid. 


Ride, 


rode, 


riding, 


ridden or rode. 


Ring, 


rung or rang, 


ringing, 


rung. 


Rise, 


rose, 


rising, 


risen. 


Rive, 


riv^d, 


riving, 


riven or rived. 


Run, 


ran, 


running, 


run* 


Saw, 


sawed, 


sawing, 


sawed or sawn* 


Say, 


said, 


saying, 


said* 


See, 


saw, 


seeing, 


seen. 


Seek, 


sought, 


seeking, 


sought. 


Seethe, 


seethed or sod, 


seething, 


seethed or sodden, 


Sell, 


sold, 


selling, 


sold. 


Send, 


sent, 


sending, 


sent. 


Set, 


set, 


setting, 


set. 


Shake, 


shook, 


shaking, 


shaken. 


Shave, 


shaved, 


shaving, 


shaved or shaven, 


Shear, 


sheared, 


shearing. 


sheared or shorn, 


Shed, 


shed, 


shedding, 


shed. 


Shine, 


shone, R. 


shining, 


shone, R. 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shoeing, 


shod. 


Show, 


showed, 


showing, 


shown* 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shooting, 


shot. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shutting, 


shut. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shredding 


shred. 


Shrink, 


shrunk, 


shrinking, 


shrunk. 


Sing, 


sung or sang, 


singing, 


sung. 


Sink, 


sunk or sank, 


sinking, 


sunk. 


Sit, 


sat, 


sitting, 


sat. 


Slay, 


slew. 


slaying, 


slain. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


sleeping, 


slept. 


Slide, 


slid, 


sliding, 


slidden or slid 



ETYMOLOGY. 



67 



Preterit. 
slung, 
slunk, 
slit, R. 



smote, 

sowed, 

spoke, 

sped, 

spent, 

spilt, R. 

spun, 

spit or spat, 

split, 

spread, 

sprung or sprang, 

stood, 

stole, 

stuck, 

stung, 

strode or strid, 

struck, 

strung, R. 

strove, R. 

strowed, 

swore, 

swept, 

swelled, 

swum or swam, 

swung, 

took, 

taught 

tore, 

told, 

thought 



Imp. Part. 
slinging, 
slinking, 
slitting, 
smiting, 
sowing, 
speaking, 
speeding, 
spending, 
spilling, 
spinning, 
spitting, 
splitting, 
spreading, 
springing, 
standing, 
stealing, 
sticking, 
stingiug, 
striding, 
striking, 
stringing, 



swearing, 

sweeping, 

swelling, 

swimming, 

swinging, 

taking, 

teaching, 

tearing, 

telling, 

thinkiDg, 



thrived or throve,thriving, 



threw, 

thrust, 

trod, 

waked or woke, 

wore, 

wove, 

wept, R, 



throwing, 

thrusting* 

treadiog, 

waking, 

wearing, 

weaving, 

weeping* 



Per/. Part. 
slung, 
slunk, 
slit, R." 
smitten or smit. 
sowed or sown, 
spoken, 
sped, 
spent, 
spilt, R. 
spun, 
spit, 
split, 
spread, 
sprung, 
stood, 
stolen, 
stuck, 
stung, 
stridden, 
struck, 
strung, R. 
striven, R. 
strowed or strown. 
sworn, 
swept. 

swelledor swollen- 
swum, 
swung, 
taken, 
taught, 
torn, 
told, 
thought. 

thrivedor thriven, 
thrown, 
thrust. 

trodden or trod, 
waked, 
worn, 
woven, 
wept, R. 



88 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present, 


Preterit. 


Imp. Part. 


Win, 


WOD, 


winning, 


Wind, 


wound, R. 


winding, 


Wont, 


wont, R. 


wonting, 


Work, 


workedor wrought, working, 


Wring, 


wrung, R. 


wringing, 



Write, wrote, 



writing, 



Per/. Part. 

won. 

wound. 

wort, R. 

woi&Mer wrought 

wrung, R. 

written. 



Obs.— In the preceding list, those preterits and participles which 
are preferable, and best supported by authorities, are placed first 
All compounds that follow the form of their simple verbs, are here 
omitted. Some words which are obsolete, have also been omit- 
ted, that the learner might not mistake them for words in present 
use. Some of those which are placed last, are now little used. 

DEFECTIVE VERBS, 

A defective verb is a verb which wants some of the prin- 
cipal parts. When any of the principal parts are want- 
ing, the tenses usually derived from those parts are also 



All the auxiliaries, except do, be, and have, are defec- 
tive. The following is a list of the defective verbs : 



Present. 

Beware, 

Can, 

May, 

Must, 

Ought, 

Shall, 

Will, 

Cluoth, 



Preterit. Imp. Part. Perf. Part. 



could, 

might, 

must, 

ought, 

should, 

would, 

quoth, 



Obs. 1.— Beware is not used in the indicative present. Musics 
never varied in termination. Ought is invariable, except in the 
solemn style, where we find oughtest. Willis sometimes used as 
a principal verb, and, as such, is regular and complete. Quoth is 
used only in ludicrous language, and is not varied. It seems 
to be properly the third person singular of the present; tor it ends 
in th, and quod was formerly used as the preterit: as, 

" Yea so sayst thou, (quod Troylus,) alas!"— Chaucer. 

Obs. 2.— Some verbs from the nature of the subject to^ which 
they refer, can be used only in the third person singular : as, It rams; 
it snows; it freezes; it hails ; it lightens; it thunders. These have 



ETYMOLOGY. 69 

been called impersonal verbs. The neuter pronoun it, which is 
always used before them, does not seem to represent any noun, 
but, in connexion with the verb, merely to express a state of 
things. 



OF THE PARTICIPLE. 

A Participle is a word derived from a verb, parti- 
cipating the properties of a verb and an adjective; 
and is generally formed by adding ing, d or ed, to 
the verb : as, rule, riding, ruled* 

Obs. 1. — Participles, like verbs, express being, action, or passion ; 
and may be limited, by other words, to time, place, degree, or 
manner. They generally relate to nouns, like adjectives, except 
when they are joined with auxiliaries in the conjugation of verbs. 

Obs. 2. — The English participles are all derived from the root of 
their respective verbs, and do not (like those of some other lan- 
guages) take their names from the tenses. They are reckoned 
among the principal parts in the conjugation of tneir verbs, and 
many of the tenses are formed from them. In the compound forms 
of conjugation, they are found in all the tenses. They do not, 
therefore, of themselves, express any particular time; but they 
denote the state of the being, action, or passion, in regard to its 
progress or completion. [See Remarks on the Participles, in the 
Port Royal Latin and Greek Grammars.] 

Verbs have three participles ; the Imperfect, the 
Perfect, and the Compound : as, Imp. loving, Perf. 
loved, Comp. having loved. 

The Imperfect* participle is always formed by 
adding ing to the verb; and implies a continuance 
of the being, action, or passion. 

The Perfect participle is regularly formed by 
adding d or ed to the verb ; and implies a comple- 
tion of the being, action, or passion. 



* " The most unexceptionable distinction which grammarians make between the 
participles, is, that the one points to the continuation of the action, passion, or 
state, denoted by the verb; and the other, to the completion of it. Thus, the 
present participle signifies imperfect action, or action begun and not ended: as, 
' I am writing a letter.' The past participle signifies action perfected, or finished : 
as, ' I have written a letter.'— ' The letter is written,'' "—-Murray's Grammar, 
iivo. page 65. 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The Compound participle is formed by prefixing 
having to the perfect participle ; and implies a pre- 
vious completion of the being, action, or passion. 

Obs. 1. — The participle in ing has been called the present parti- 
ciple. But it is as applicable to past or future, as to present time ; 
otherwise, such expressions as, u I had been writing," " I shall be 
writing," would be solecisms. It has also been called the active 
participle. But it is not always active, even when derived from 
an active verb ; for such expressions as, "The goods are selling,'" 
" The ships are now building," are in use, and not without author- 
ity. The distinguishing characteristic of this participle is, that it 
denotes an unfinished and progressive state of being, action, or 
passion; it is, therefore, properly denominated the imperfect par- 
ticiple. This name is adopted and defended by several of the 
most respectable grammarians; as Dr. Crombie, J. Grant, and T. 
0. Churchill. [See their respective works published in London.] 

Obs. 2. — The participle in ed, denotes a completion of the being, 
action or passion, and is therefore denominated the perfect parti- 
ciple. The perfect participle of transitive verbs, being used in 
the formation of passive verbs, is sometimes called the passive par- 
ticiple. It has a passive signification, except when it is used in 
forming the compound tenses of the active verb. Hence the dif- 
ference between the sentences, " I have written a letter," and, " I 
have a letter written." 

Obs. 3. — Participles often become adjectives, and are construed 
before nouns to denote quality. Words of a participial form, may 
be regarded as adjectives: 1. When they denote something cus- 
tomary or habitual, rather than a transient act or state ; as, A lying 
rogue, i. e. one addicted to lying. 2. When they admit adverbs of 
comparison; as, A more learned man. 3. When they are com- 
pounded with something that does not belong to the verb; as, un- 
feeling, unfelt. Adjectives are generally placed before their nouns ; 
participles, after them. 

Obs. 4. — Participles often become nouns. When preceded by 
an article, an adjective, or a noun or pronoun of the possessive 
case, they are construed as nouns, and have no regimen. A parti- 
ciple immediately preceded by a preposition, is not converted into 
a noun, and therefore retains its regimen; as, "I thank you for 
helping him" This construction of the participle correspond* 
with the Latin Gerund. 



ETYMOLOGY. 71 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING, 

(CHAPTER V.) 

In which it is required of the pupil — to distinguish 
and define the different parts of speech, and the 
classes and modifications of the articles, nouns r 
adjectives, pronouns, verbs, and participles. 
Thus : 

Piety has the purest delight attending it 

Piety is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neu- 
ter gender, and nominative case. 

1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can 

be known or mentioned. 

2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class of 

things. 

3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing 

merely spoken of. 

4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 

5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are 

neither male nor female. 

6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pro- 

noun, which denotes the subject of a verb. 
has is an irregular active-transitive verb, from have, had, having 
had; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third 
person, singular number. 

1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted 

upon. 

2. An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit 

and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed. 

3. An active-transitive verb is a verb that expresses an action 

which has some person or thing for its object. 

4. The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply 

indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 

5. The present tense is that which expresses what now exists 

or is taking place. 

6. The third person is that which denotes the person or thihg 

merely spoken of. 

7. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 
the is the definite article. 

1. An article is a word placed before nouns, to limit their sig- 

nification. 

2. The definite article is the, which denotes some particular 

thing or things. 
purest is a common adjective, of the superlative degree. 

1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and gen- 
erally expresses quality. 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, 

3. The superlative degree is that which is not exceeded. 
delight is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 

neuter gender, and objective case. 
l.A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can 
be known or mentioned. 

2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class of 

things. 

3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing 

merely spoken of. 

4. The singular number is that which denotes but 'one. 

5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are 

neither male nor female. 

6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pro- 

noun, which denotes the object of a verb, participle, or 
preposition. 
attending is an imperfect participle, from the regular active-transi- 
tive verb attend, attended, attending, attended. 

1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the 
properties of a verb and an adjective ; and is generally 
formed by adding ing, d or ed, to the verb. 

2 The imperfect participle is always formed by adding ing to 
the verb ; and implies a continuance of the being, action, 
or passion. 
it is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, and objective case. 

1. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. 

2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of 

what person it is. 

3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing- 

merely spoken of. 

4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 

5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are 

neither male nor female. 

6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pro- 

noun, which denotes the object of a verb, participle, or 
preposition. 

LESSON I. 

I repent. Thou studiest. He returns. She mourns. 
It seems. We rejoice. You appear. They approach. 

I suppose. Thou thinkst. He sits. She comes. It rains. 
We stand. You are known. They are deceived. 

I was slighted. Thou durst not speak. He left the com- 
pany. She seemed afraid. We knew the man. You were 
sot there. They held him fast. 

LESSON II. 

I have been sick. Thou hast been taught. He had not 



ETYMOLOGY. 73 

found them. She will not go. We shall be preserved. 
You will not meet him. They will have been sold. 

I saw the whole transaction: both parties disgraced them- 
selves. 

Their friends have been informed of all that has occur- 
red. 

If the pupil has genius, application to study will improve 
and adorn it. 

A soul inspired with the love of truth, will summon all 
its powers to the pursuit of it. 

LESSON III. 

I shall consider it a particular favour, if you will send 
me the goods which were selected. 

Think of me, when it shall be well with thee. 

It deserves our best skill to inquire into those rules by 
which we may guide our judgement. 

If we do not exercise our faculties, they will become 
impaired. 

When thou hast received a favour, remember it : when 
thou hast granted one, forget it. 

If we have sauntered away our youth, we must expect 
to be ignorant men. 

LESSON IV. 

Avarice and cunning may acquire an estate ; but they 
cannot gain friends. 

They had acquired such a love for learning, that no al- 
lurements to indulgence, could withdraw them from the 
pleasure of improving their minds. 

It may have escaped his recollection ; but such was the 
fact. 

He must indeed have been a very extraordinary man, 
if he had never felt any sentiment of this kind rising in his 
breast. 

By carrying some praise-worthy dispositions to excess, 
he bordered sometimes on what was culpable, and was oft- 
en betrayed into actions that exposed him to censure. 

8 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON V. 

Having discovered this transaction, be suspected their 
design; and, by withdrawing privately, eluded their crafti- 
ness. 

A spirit less vigorous than Luther's, would have shrunk 
from tbe dangers which he braved and surmounted. 

His natural iutrepidity did not forsake him at the ap- 
proach of death. 

Afflictions do not attack the good mau by surprise, and, 
therefore, do not overwhelm him. 

Trained by divine grace, to enjoy with moderation the 
advantages of the world, neither lifted up by success, nor 
enervated by sensuality, he meets the changes of his lot 
without unmanly dejection. 

LESSON VI. 

Who covered the earth with such a pleasing variety of 
fruits and flowers ? Who gave them their delightful fra- 
grance, aud painted them with such exquisite colours ? 
Who causes the same water to whiten iu the lily, that blushes 
in the rose ? Do not these things indicate a cause infin* 
itely superior to any finite being. 

Acquaint thyself with God, if thou wouldst taste 
His works. Admitted once to his embrace, 
Thou shalt perceive, that thou wast blind before : 
Thine eye shall be instructed ; and thine heart, 
Made pure, shall relish with divine delight, 
Till then unfelt, what hands divine have wrought. 



OF THE ADVERB. 

An Adverb is a word added to a verb, a partici- 
ple, an adjective, or an other adverb ; and generally 
expresses time, place, degree, or manner: as, They 
are now here, studying very diligently, 

Obs. — Adverbs briefly express what would otherwise require sev- 
eral words ; as, here, for. in this place. There are several customary- 
combinations of short words which are used adverbially, and which 
some grammarians do not analyze in parsing ; as,JVof at all } at length. 



ETYMOLOGY. 75 

CLASSES. 

Adverbs maybe reduced to four general classes ; 
namely, adverbs oi time, of place, of degree, and of 
manner. 

I. Adverbs of time, generally answer to the question 
when? or how often ? and may be subdivided as follows : 

1. Of time present; as, Now, yet, to-day, presently, instantly, im- 
mediately. 

2. Of time past ; as, Already, yesterday, lately, heretofore, hitherto, 
since, ago. 

3. Of time to come ; as, To-morrow, hereafter, henceforth, by and 
by, soon, ere long. 

4. Of time relative ; as, When, then, before, after, while or ivhilst, 
till, until. 

5. Of time absolute : as, Always, ever, never. 

6. Of time repeated; as, Often, oft, again, occasionally , frequent- 
ly, sometimes, seldom, rarely, now and then, daily, weekly, monthly, 
yearly, once, twice, thrice, or three times, he. 

7. Of the order of time ; as, First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, &c. 

II. Adverbs of place, generally answer to the question 
where ? whither ? or whence ? and may be subdivided as 
follows : 

1. Of place in which ; as, Where, here, there, yonder, somewhere, 
anywhere, elsewhere, everywhere, no where, wherever, within, without, 
whereabout, hereabout, thereabout. 

2„ Of place to which ; as, Whither, fiither, thither, in, out, vv, down, 
upiourds, downwards, baxkwards, forwards . 

3. Of place from which ; as. Whence, hence, thence. 

4. Of the order of place ; as, First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, &c. 

III. Adverbs of degree, generally answer to the question 
how much ? and may be subdivided as follows : 

1. Of excess or abundance ; as, Much, too, very, greatly, far, be- 
sides ; chiefly, principally, mainly, generally ; entirely, fully, com- 
pletely, perfectly, wholly, totally, altogether, all, quite, clear, stark ; 
exceedingly, excessively, extravagantly, intolerably. 

2. Of equality ; as, Enough, sufficiently, equally, so, as. 

3. Of deficiency or abatement ; as, Little, scarcely, hardly, mere- 
ly, barely, only, but, partly, partially, nearly, almost. 

IV. Adverbs of manner, generally answer to the ques- 
tion how ? and may be subdivided as follows : 

1. Of quality ; as, Well, ill, wisely, foolishly, justly, quickly, and 
many others formed by adding ly to adjectives of quality. Most 
adverbs of quality admit other adverbs, of increase or diminution, 
before them ; as, Ably, more ably, most ably— forcibly, less forcibly, 
least forcibly. 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Of affirmation ; as, Yes, yea } verily, truly, indeed, surely, cer- 
tainly, doubtless, undoubtedly. 

3. Of negation ; as, No, nay, not, nowise. 

4. Of doubt; as, Perhaps, haply, possibly, perchance, peradven- 
ture. 

5. Of mode; as, Thus, so, somehow, like, else, otherwise, forth, 
across, together, apart, asunder, namely, particularly, necessarily, 
consequently, therefore. 

Obs. 1. — Adverbs of time, place, and manner, are generally con- 
nected with verbs orparticiples; those of degree are more frequent- 
ly prefixed to adjectives or adverbs. 

Obs. 2. — The adverbs here, there, and where, when prefixed to 
prepositions, have the force of pronouns : as, Hereby, for by this; 
thereby, for by that ; whereby, for by which. Compounds of this kind 
are, however, commonly reckoned adverbs. They are not now so 
much used as formerly. 

Q«-«. 3. — The adverbs how, when, whence, where, whither, why, and 
their compounds, are frequently used as interrogatives ; but, as such, 
they severally belong to the classes under which they are placed. 

Adverbs sometimes perform the office of conjunctions, 
and serve to connect sentences, as well as express some cir- 
cumstance of time, place, degree, or manner : adverbs that 
are so used, are called conjunctive adverbs. 

Obs. — The following words are the most frequently used as con- 
junctive adverbs : after, again, also, before., besides, else, even, hence, 
however, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, since, then, thence, there- 
fore, till, until, when, where, wherefore, while or whilst. 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Adverbs have no modifications, except that a few 
are compared after the manner of adjectives ; as, 
Soon, sooner, soonest — often, oftener, oftenest. 

The following are irregularly compared : well, better, 
best ; badly or ill, worse, worst ; little, less, least ; much, 
more, most ; far, farther, farthest ; forth, further, furth- 
est. 

Obs. 1. — Most adverbs of quality will admit the comparative ad- 
verbs more and most, less and least, before them: as, wisely, more 
wisely, most wisely ; culpably, less culpably, least culpably. 

Obs. 2. — As comparison does not belong to adverbs in general, 
it should not be mentioned in parsing, except in the case of those 
■few which are varied by it. 



ETYMOLOGY* 77 

OF THE CONJUNCTION. 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words 
or sentences in construction, and to snow the depend- 
ence 01 the tefois so connected : as, Thou and he 
are happy, because you are good. 

CLASSES. 

Conjunctions are divided into two classes; copula* 
live and disjunctive, 

A copulative conjunction is a conjunction that de- 
notes an addition, a cause, or a supposition : as, He 
and I shall not dispute ;for, if tie has any choice, I 
shall readily grant it. 

A disjunctive conjunction is a conjunction that 
denotes opposition' of meaning : as, " Be not over- 
come by evil ; but overcome evil with good." 

The following are the principal conjunctions : 

1 . Copulative ; and, as, both, because, for, if, that. 

2. Disjunctive ; or, not, either, neither, than, though, al- 
though, yet, but, whether, lest, unless, save, notwithstanding. 



OF THE PREPOSITION. 

A Preposition is a word used to express some re- 
lation of different things to each other, and is general- 
ly placed before a noun or a pronoun : as, The paper 
lies before me on the desk* 

The following are the principal prepositions • Above, 
about, after, against, amid or amidst, among or amongst, 
at — before, behind, below, beneath, beside or besides, be- 
tween or betwixt, beyond, by — concerning — down, during— 
except— for, from— in, into — ofoff,on or upon, over — round 
or around — since — through, throughout, till, to, touching, 
toward or towards— under, underneath, up — with, within, 
without. 

8 * 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Obs — The words in the preceding list are generally prepositions* 
But when any of them are employed without a subsequent term of 
relation, they are adverbs. For when it signifies because, is a con- 
junction. 



OF THE INTERJECTION. 



An Interjection is a word that is uttered merely to 
indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind; 
a-, Oh ! alas ! 

Obs. — Of pure interjections but few are admitted into books. As 
a ords, or sounds,of this kind, serve rather to indicate feeling, than 
to express thought, they seldom have any definable signification. 
Their use also is so variable, that there can be no accurate classifi- 
cation of them. Some significant words, properly belonging to the 
other classes, are ranked with interjections, when uttered with 
emotion and in an unconnected manner. 

The following are the principal interjections, arranged 
according to the emotions which they are generally in- 
tended to indicate : — 1. Joy; hey ! to/— 2. Sorrow; oh ! 
ah! alas I alack! — 3. Wonder; height ha! strange! — 
4. Wishing or earnestness; (often with a nonu or pronoun in a 
direct address; ) O / — 5. Pain ; oh ! ah ! eh ! — 6. Contempt; 
pugh ! poh ! pshaw ! pish ! tush !— 7. Aversion ; foh ! fie ! 
off! begone! avaunt! — 8. Calling; ho ! soho ! holla ! — 
9. Exultation ; aha ! huzza ! heyday ! hurrah ! — 10. Laugh- 
ter ; ha, ha> ha. — 1 1 . Salutation ; welcome ! hail ! all hail ! 
— 12. Call to attention; lo ! behold! look ! see! hark I — 
1 3. Call to silence ; hush ! Hist ! mum ! — 1 4. Surprise ; oh t 
ha ! hah ! — 15. Langour; heighho ! 

Obs. — Besides these- there are several others, too often heard, 
which are unworthy to be considered as parts of a cultivated lan- 
guage. The frequent use of interjections, savours more of thought' 
lessness, than of sensibility. 



ETYMOLOGY. 79 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING, 

(CHAPTER VI.) 

In which it is required of the pupil — to distinguish 
and define the different parts of speech, and all 
their classes and modifications. Thus : 

O ! sooner shall the earth and stars fall into chaos ! 

! is an interjection, indicating earnestness. 

1. An interjection is a word that is uttered merely to indicate. 

some strong or sudden emotion of the mind. 

2. The interjection of wishing or earnestness, is O. 
sooner is an adverb of time, of the comparative degree. 

1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjec- 

tive, or an other adverb, 

2. Adverbs of time generally answer to the question when ? or 

how often ? 

3. The comparative degree is that which exceeds the positive. 
shall is an auxiliary to fall. 

An auxiliary is a short verb prefixed to one of the principal 
parts of an other verb, to express some particular mode 
and time of the being, action, or passion. 
the is the definite article. 

1. An article is a word placed before nouns, to limit their signi- 

fication. 

2. The definite article is the, which denotes some particular 

thing or things. 
earth is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neu- 
ter gender, and nominative case. 

1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can 

be known or mentioned. 

2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class of 

things. 

3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing 

merely spoken of. 

4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 

5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are 

neither male nor female. 

6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pro- 

noun, which denotes the subject of a verb. 
and is a copulative conjunction. 

1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences 

in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms 
so connected. 

2. A copulative conjunction is a conjunction that denotes ail 

addition, a cause, or a supposition. 
stars is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, neuter 
gender, and nominative case. 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, than caii 

be known or mentioned. 

2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class of 

things. 

3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing 

merely spoken of. 

4. The plural number is that which denotes more than one. 

5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are 

neither male nor female. 

6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pro- 

noun which denotes the subject of a verb. 
shaV fall is an irregular active-intransitive verb, from fall, fell, fall* 
ing, fallen; found in the indicative mood,first-future tense, 
third person, plural number. 

1 . A verb is a Word that signifies to be, to act, or to be actedupon. 

2. An irregular Verb is a verb that does not form the preterit 

and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed. 

3. An active-intransitive verb is a verb that expresses an action 

which has no person or thing for its object. 

4. The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply 

indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 

5. The first-future tense is that which expresses what will take 

take place hereafter. 

6. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing 

merely spoken of. 

7. The plural number is that which denotes more than one. 
into is a preposition. 

A preposition is a word used to express some relation of dif- 
ferent things to each other, and is generally placed before 
a noun or pronoun. 
chaos is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neu- 
ter gender, and objective case. 

1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can 

be known or mentioned. 

2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class of 

things. 

3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing 

merely spoken of. 

4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 

5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are nei- 

male nor female. 

6. The objective Case is that form or state of a noun or pro- 

noun, which denotes the object of a verb, participle, or 
preposition. 

LESSON I. 

There is nothing which more engages the affections of 
men, than a handsome address and graceful conversation. 

It is a sign of great prudence, to be willing to receive in- 
struction ; the most intelligent persons sometimes stand in 
need of it, 



ETYMOLOGY. 81 

Good nature, in a companion, is more agreeable thau 
wit; and gives a certain air to the countenance, which is 
more amiable than beauty. 

Men of the noblest dispositions, think themselves happi- 
est, when others share with them in their happiness. 

Then near approaching, 'Father, hail!' he cried; 
And, 'Hail, my son !' the reverend sire replied. 

LESSON II. 

Ingratitude is a crime so shameful, that no one has ever 
yet been found,who would acknowledge himself guilty of it. 

True greatness of mind is to be maintained only by 
Christian principles. 

Small transgressions become great by frequent repetition ; 
as small expenses, multiplied, insensibly waste a large re- 
venue. 

A talkative fellow applying to Isocrates for instruction, 
the orator asked him double his usual price ; — ' Because, 
said he, ' I must both teach him to speak, and to hold his 
tongue.' 

Hark! the bee winds her small but mellow horn, 
Blithe to salute the sunny smile of mom. 

LESSON HI. 

Do not hurt yourselves or others, by the pursuit of plea- 
sure, Consult your whole nature. Consider yourselves 
not only as sensitive, but as rational beings ; not only as 
ratioual, but as social ; not only as social, but immortal. 

For what end has the lavish hand of Providence diffused 
innumerable objects of delight, but that all might rejoice in 
the privilege of existence, and be filled with gratitude to 
the beneficent author of it ? 

O let not thy heart despise me ! thou, whom experience 
has not taught," that it is misery to lose that which it is not 
happiness to possess. 

Let never day nor night unhallow'd pass, 
But stiil remember what the Lord hath done. 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON IV. 

Man surely has some latent sense for which this place 
affords no gratification,©! 1 he has some desires distinct from 
sense, which must be satisfied before he can be happy. 

I have found a man who can teach ail that is necessary 
to be known ; who, from the unshaken throne of rational for- 
titude, looks down on the scenes of life changing beneath 
him. He speaks, and attention watches his lips. He rea- 
sons, and conviction closes his periods. 

Ignorance, when it is voluntary, is criminal ; and he may 
properly be charged with evil, who refused to learn how 
he might prevent it. 

Ha ! at the gates what grisly forms appear ! 
LESSON. V. 

When we act according to our duty, we commit the event 
to him by whose laws our actions are governed, and who 
will suffer none to be fiuaily punished for obedience. 

When, in prospect of some good, whether natural or 
moral, we break the rules prescribed us, we withdraw from 
the direction of superior wisdom, and take all consequences 
upon ourselves. 

Man cannot so far know the connexion of causes and 
events, as that he may venture to do wrong in order to do 
right. 

When we pursue our end by lawful means, we may al- 
ways console our miscarriage by the hope of future recom- 
pense. 

Ah, that deceit should steal such gentle shapes. 
And with a virtuous visor hide deep vice ! 

LESSON. VI. 

How comfortless is the sorrow of him who feels at once 
the pangs of guilt and the vexation of calamity which guilt 
has brought upon him I 

He who will determine against that which he knows, be- 
cause there may be something which he knows not, is not 
to be admitted among reasonable beings. 



ETYMOLOGY. 83 

To live without feeling or exciting sympathy, to be fortu- 
nate without adding to the felicity of others, or afflicted with- 
out tasting the balm of pity, is a state more gloomy than 
solitude ; it is not retreat, but exclusion from mankind. 

O happy peasant ! oh unhappy bard ! 

His the mere tinsel, hers the rich reward. 

LESSON VII. 

It is the care of a very great part of mankind, to conceal 
their indigence from the rest; they support themselves by 
temporary expedients, and every day is lost in contriviD* 
tor the morrow. 

Pride is seldom delicate, it will please itself with very 
mean advantages ; and envy feels not its own happiness, but 
when it may be compared with the misery of others. 

Nothing is proof against the general curse 
Of vanity, that seizes all below. 
The only amaranthine flower on earth 
Is virtue ,• the only lasting treasure, truth. 



QUESTIONS ON ETYMOLOGY. 

Of what does Etymology treat ? 
How many parts of speech are there ? name them, 
What is an article ? 
What is a noun ? 
What is an adjective ? 
What is a pronoun ? 
What is a verb ? 
What is a participle ? 
What is an adverb ? 
What is a conjunction ? 
W T hat is a preposition ? 
What is an interjection ? 

What is required of the pupil, in the first chapter of ex- 
amples for parsing ? 
What is an Article ? 

How many articles are there ? Name them. 
Are an and a different forms of the same article ? 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

\¥hen is an used ? and when, a ? 

How are the articles distinguished ? 

Which is the definite article, and what does it denote ? 

Which is the indefinite article, and what does it denote ? 

What is a Noun ? 

Into what general classes are nouns divided ? 

What is a proper noun ? 

What is a common noun ? 

What particular classes are included among common 
nouns ? 

What is a collective noun? 

What is an abstract noun ? 

What is a verbal or participial noun ? 

What modifications have nouns ? 

What are Persons ? 

How many persons are there, and what are they called ? 

What is the first person ? 

What is the second person ? 

What is the third person ? 

What are Numbers ? 

How many numbers are there, and what are they 
called ? 

What is the singular number ? 

What is the plural number ? 

How is the plural number of nouns regularly formed ? 

What is the rule for adding s and es, to form the plural? 

What are Genders ? 

How many genders are there,and what are they called? 

What is the masculine gender ? 

What is the feminine gender ? 

What is the neuter gender ? 

What are Cases ? 

How many cases are there, and what are they called 1 

What is the nominative case ? 

What is the subject of a verb ? 

What is the possessive case ? 

How is the possessive case of nouns formed ? 

What is the objective case ? 

What is the object of a verb, participle, or preposition ? 

What is the declension of a noun ? 

Decline the nouns, friend, man, fox, and fly. 



ETYMOLOGY. 85 

What is required of the pupil in the second chapter of 
examples for parsing ? 

What is an Adjective ? 

Into what classes may adjectives be divided ? 

What is a common adjective ? 

What is a proper adjective ? 

What is a numeral adjective ? 

How many kinds of numeral adjectives are there ? 

What is a pronominal adjective ? 

What is a participial adjective ? 

What is a compound adjective ? 

What modifications have adjectives ? 

What is comparison ? 

How mauy, and what are the degrees of comparison ? 

What is the positive degree ? 

What is the comparative degree ? 

What is the superlative degree ? 

How are adjectives regularly compared ? 

Compare greats wide, and hot. 

To what adjectives are er and est applicable ? 

Is there any other mode of expressing the degrees of a 
quality ? 

What adjectives require this method of comparison ? 

How are the degrees of diminution expressed ? 

Compare good, bad or ill, much,many, far, forth, late. 

What is required of the pupil in the third chapter of ex- 
amples for parsiug ? 

What is a Pronoun 2 

How are pronouns divided ? 

What is a personal pronoun ? 

How many, and what are the simple personal pronouns? 

What is a relative pronoun ? 

Mention the relative pronouns. 

What is an interrogative pronoun ? 

Mention the interrogative pronouns. 

What modifications have pronouns ? 

What is the declension of a pronoun ? 

Decline the pronouns I, thou, he, she, and it 

Explain the compound personal pronouns ? 

Decline who, which, what, and that* 
9 



£6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

What is required of the pupil in the fourth chapter of 

examples for parsing ? 
What is a Verb ? 

How are verbs divided with respect to their form ? 
W T hat is a regular verb ? 
What is an irregular verb ? 

How are verbs divided with respect to their signification? 
What is an active-transitive verb ? 
What is an active-intransitive verb ? 
What is a passive verb ? 
What is a neuter verb ? 
W 7 hat modifications have verbs ? 
What are Moods ? 

How many moods are there, and what are they called ? 
What is the infinitive mood ? 
What is the indicative mood ? 
What is the potential mood ? 
What is the subjunctive mood ? 
What is the imperative mood ? 
What are Tenses ? 

How many tenses are there ? and what are they called ? 
What is the present tense ? 
What is the imperfect tense ? 
What is the perfect tense ? 
What is the pluperfect tense ? 
What is Urn first future tense ? 
What is the second-future tense ? 
What are the Person and Number of a verb ? 
How many persons and numbers are there ? 
How are the second and third persons singular of verbs 

formed ? 
What is the Conjugation of a verb ? 
What are the principal parts in the conjugation of a 

verb 1 
What is a verb called, which wants some of these parts? 
What is an auxiliary ? 
What are the auxiliaries ? 

Conjugate the regular active verb love throughout. 
Give the synopsis in each person and number. 
Conjugate the regular active verb see throughout. 
Give a synopsis in each person and number. 
Conjugate the irregular neuter verb be throughout; 



ETYMOLOGY. 



87 



Give a synopsis in each person and number. 

Is there any other method of conjugating active and neu- 
ter verbs ? 

Conjugate the active verb rea.d in the compound form. 

Give a synopsis in each person and number. 

How are passive verbs formed ? 

Conjugate the passive verb be loved throughout. 

Give a synopsis in each person and number. 

How is a verb conjugated negatively ? 

How is a verb conjugated interrogatively ? 

How is a verb conjugated interrogatively and negatively? 

What is an irregular verb ? 

Learn the principal parts of all the irregular verbs. 

What is a defective verb ? 

What verbs are defective ? and wherein are they so ? 

What is a Participle ? 

How many participles have verbs ? and what are they ? 

How is the imperfect participle always formed? and 
what does it imply ? 

How is the perfect participle regularly formed ? and 
what does it imply ? 

How is the compound participle formed ? and what does 
it imply ? 

What is required of the pupil in the fifth chapter of ex- 
amples for parsing? 

What i3 an Adverb ? 

To what general classes may adverbs be reduced ? 

How may adverbs of time be known? 

How may adverbs of place be known? 

How may adverbs of degree be known ? 

How may adverbs of 'manner be known ? 

What are conjunctive adverbs ? 

Have adverbs any modifications ? 

Compare ?vell, badly or ill, little, much, far, and forth. 

What is a Conjunction ? 

How are conjunctions divided ? 

What is a copulative conjunction ? 

What is a disjunctive conjunction ? 

What are the principal conjunctions ? 

What is a Preposition ? 

What are the principal prepositions ? 

What is an Interjection ? 

How are the interjections arranged ? 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

What are the interjections of joy ? — of sorrow ? — of won* 
der ? — of wishing or earnestness ? — of pain ? — of contempt ? 
— of aversion ?— of calling ?— of exultation ?— of laughter ? 
— of salutation ?— of calling to attentiou ?— of calling to si- 
lence '? — of surprise 1 — of languor ? 

What is required of the pupil in the sixth chapter of ex- 
amples for parsing ? 



EXERCISES IN ETYMOLOGY. 

When the pupil has become familiar with the different 
parts of speech, and their divisions and modifications, and 
has been sufficiently exercised in etymological parsiDg, 
he should write the following exercises. 

EXERCISE I.— ARTICLES. 

1, Prefix the definite article to the following nouns: 
path, paths; loss, losses; name, names; page, pages; want, 
wants; doubt, doubts; votary, votaries. 

2. Prefix the indefinite article to the following nouns : 
age, error, idea, omen, urn, arch, bird, cage, dream, em- 
pire, farm, grain, horse, idol, jay, king, lady, man, novice, 
opinion, pony, quail, raven, sample, trade, uncle, vessel, 
window, youth, zone, whirlwind, union, onion, unit, eagle, 
house, honour, hour, herald, habitation, hospital, harper, 
harpoon, ewer, eye, humour. 

3. Insert the definite article rightly in the following 
phrases : George Second — fair appearance— part first — 
reasons most obvious — good man — wide circle — man of 
honour— man of world — old books — common people — same 
person — smaller piece — rich and poor — first and last — all 
time — great excess— nine muses — how rich reward — so 
small number — all ancient writers — in nature of things — 
much better course. 

4, Insert the indefinite article rightly in each of the fol- 
lowing phrases : new name — very quick motion — other 
sheep— such power — what instance — great weight — such 
worthy cause — too great difference — high honour — humble 
station — universal law — what strange event — so deep inter- 
est — as firm hope — so great wit — humorous story — such 
person — few dollars— kittle reflection. 



ETYMOLOGY. 89 

EXERCISE II.— NOUNS. 

1. Write the plural of the following nouns : town,country, 
case, pin, needle, harp, pen, sex, rush, arch, marsh, mon- 
arch, blemish, distich, princess, gas, bias, stigma, wo,grotto, 
folio, punctilio, ally, duty, toy, money, entry, valley, vol- 
ley, half, dwarf, strife, knife, roof, muff, staff, chief, sheaf, 
mouse,penny, ox, foot, erratum, axis, thesis, criterion,bo!us, 
rebus, son-in-law, pailful, man-servant. 

2. Write the feminines corresponding to the following 
nouns : earl, friar, stag, lord, duke, marquiss, hero, execu- 
tor, nephew, heir, actor, enchanter, hunter, prince, traitor, 
lion, arbiter, tutor, songster, abbot, master, uncle, widower, 
son, landgrave. 

3. Write the possessive case, singular, of the following 
nouns : table, leaf, boy, torch, park, porch, portico, lynx, 
calf, sheep, wolf, echo, folly, cavern, father-in-law, court- 
martial. 

4. Write the possessive case, plural, of the following 
nouns : priest, tutor, scholar, mouutain,city, courtierjudge, 
citizen, woman, servant, writer, grandmother. 

5. Write the possessive case, both singular and plural, 
of the following nouns : body, fancy, lady, attorney, negro, 
nuncio, life, brother, deer, child, wife, goose, beau, envoy, 
distaff, colloquy, hero, thief, wretch. 

EXERCISE III.— ADJECTIVES. 

1. Annex a suitable noun to each of the following ad- 
jectives : good, great, tall, wise, strong, dark, dangerous, 
dismal, drowsy, twenty, true, difficult, pale, livid, ripe, 
delicious, stormy, rainy, convenient, heavy. Thus — good 
pens, &c. 

2. Prefix a suitable adjective to each of the following 
nouns : man, son, merchant, work, fence, fear, poverty, 
picture, prince, delay, suspense, devices, follies, actions. 
Thus — wise man, &c. 

3. Compare the following adjectives; black, bright, 
short, white, old, high, wet, big, few, lovely, dry, fat, good, 
bad, little, much, many, far. 

4. Express the degrees of the following qualities by the 
comparative adverbs of increase : delightful, comfortable, 

9 * 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

agreeable, pleasant, fortunate, valuable, wretched, vivid, 
timid, poignant, excellent. 

5. Express the degrees of the following qualities by the 
comparative adverbs of diminution : objectionable, formi- 
dable, forcible, comely, pleasing, obvious, censurable, 
prudent. 

EXERCISE IV.— PRONOUNS. 

1. Write the nominative plural of the following pro- 
nouns : I, thou, he, she, it, who, which, what, that. 

2. Write the declension of the following pronouns : my- 
self, thyself, himself, herself, itself, whosoever. 

3. Write the following words in their customary form : 
her's, it's, our's, yours', their's, who's, meself, hisself, their- 
selves. 

4. Write the objective singular of all the simple pro- 
Qouns. 

5. Write the objective plural of all the simple pronouns. 

EXERCISE V.— VERBS. 

1. Write the four principal parts of each of the following 
verbs : slip, thrill, caress, force, release, crop, try, die, 
obey, delay, destroy, deny, buy, come, do, feed, lie, say, 
huzza. 

2. Write the following preterits in their appropriate 
form : exprest, stript, learnt, dropt, jumpt, prest, topt, whipt, 
spoilt, propt, fixt, staid, past, crost, stept, distrest, gusht, 
confest, snapt, blest, shipt, kist, discust, lackt. 

3. Write the following verbs in the indicative mood, 
present tense, second person, singular : move, strive,please, 
reach, confess, fix, deny, survive, know, go, outdo, close, 
lose, pursue. 

4. Write the following verbs in the indicative mood, pre- 
sent tense, third person, singular : leave, seem, search, im- 
peach, fear, redress, comply, bestow, do, woo, sue, view, 
allure, rely, beset, release, be, bias. 

5. Write the following verbs in the subjunctive mood, 
present tense, in the three persons, singular : serve, shun, 
turn, learn, find, wish, throw, dream, possess, detest, disarm, 
allow, pretend. 



ETYMOLOGY. 91 



EXERCISE VL— VERBS. 

1. Write a synopsis of the first person singular of the 
active verb amuse, conjugated affirmatively. 

2. Write a synopsis of the second person singular of 
the neuter verb sit, conjugated affirmatively in the solemn 
style. 

3. Write a synopsis of the third person singular of the 
active verb speak, conjugated affirmatively in the com- 
pound form. 

4. Write a synopsis of the first person plural of the pas- 
sive verb be reduced, conjugated affirmatively. 

5. Write a synopsis of the second person plural of the 
active verb lose, conjugated negatively. 

6. Write a synopsis of the third person plural of the 
neuter verb stand, conjugated interrogatively. 

7. Write a synopsis of the first person singular of the 
active verb derive, conjugated interrogatively and nega- 
tively. 

EXERCISE VII.— PARTICIPLES. 

1. Write the imperfect participle of the following verbs j 
belong, provoke, degrade, impress, fly, do, survey, vie, 
coo, let, hit, put, defer, differ, remember. 

2. Write the perfect participle of the following verbs i 
turn, burn, learn, deem, crowd, choose, draw, hear, lend, 
sweep, tear, thrust, steal, write, delay, imply, exist. 

3. Write the compound participle of the following verbs : 
depend, dare, deny, value, forsake, bear, set, sit, lay, 
mix, speak, sleep, allot. 

4. Write the following participles in their appropriate 
form : dipt, deckt, markt, equipt, ingulft, embarrast, astou- 
isht, tost, embost, absorpt, attackt, gasht, soakt, hackt, 
blest, curst. 

5. Write the regular participles which are now gene- 
rally preferred to the following irregular ones: clad, gra- 
ven, hoven, hewn, knelt, leant, lit, mown, quit, riven, 
sawn, sodden, shaven, shorn, sown, strown, swollen, thriven, 
wrought. 



U2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

6. Write the irregular participles which are commonly 
preferred to the following regular ones: bended, builded, 
catched, creeped, dealed, digged, dreamed, dwelled, gild- 
ed, girded, hanged, knitted, laded, meaned, reaved, shined, 
slitted, splitted, stringed, strived, weeped, wonted, wringed. 

EXERCISE VIII.— ADVERBS, &c. 

1. Compare the following adverbs: soon, often, well, 
badly or ill, little, much, far, forth. 

2. Prefix the comparative adverbs of increase to each of 
the following adverbs: purely, fairly, sweetly, earnestly, 
patiently, completely, fortunately, profitably. 

3. Prefix the comparative adverbs of diminution to the 
following adverbs: secretly, slily, liberally, favourably, 
powerfully. 

4. Insert suitable conjunctions in place of the following 
clashes : Love — fidelity are inseparable. Beware of par- 
ties — factions. Do well — boast not Improve time — it flies. 
There would be few paupers — no time were lost. Be not 
proud — thou art human. I saw— it was necessary. Hon- 
esty is better — policy. Neither he— I can do it. It must 
be done — to-day — to-morrow. Take care — thou fall. 
Though I should boast — am I nothing. 

5. Insert suitable prepositions in the place of the follow- 
ing dashes : Plead — the dumb. Qualify thyself — action 
— study. Thiuk often — the worth — time. Live — peace 
— all men. Keep — compass. Jest not — serious subjects. 
Take no part — slander. Guilt starts — its own shadow. 
Grudge not — giving. Go not— sleep — malice. Debate not 
— temptation. Depend not — the stores — others. Contend 
not — trifles. Many fall — grasping —things — their reach. 
Be deaf — detraction. 

6. Correct the following sentences, and adapt the inter- 
jections to the emotions expressed by the other words: 
Aha! aha! I am undone. Hey! io! I am tired. Ho! be 
still. Avaunt! this way. Ah! what nonsense. Heigho! 
I am delighted. Hist! it is contemptible. Oh for that 
sympathetic glow! Ah! what withering phantoms glare! 



SYNTAX, 93 

PART III. 

Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, govern- 
ment, and arrangement, of words in sentences. 

The relation of words, is their dependence, ac- 
cording to the sense. 

The agreement of words, is their similarity in per- 
son, number, gender, case, mood, tense, or form. 

The government of words, is that power which 
one part of speech has over an other, to cause it to 
assume some particular modification. 

The arrangement of words, is their collocation in 
a sentence. 

A sentence is an assemblage of words, making 
complete sense, and always containing a nominative 
and a verb. 

The principal parts of a sentence, are the sub- 
ject, or nominative — the verb — and, (if the verb be 
transitive,) the object governed by the verb. The 
other parts depend upon these either as primary or 
as secondary adjuncts. 

Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound. 

A simple sentence, is a sentence which conveys 
but one affirmation or negation ; as, " Man is mortal." 

A compound sentence, is a sentence which may 
be resolved into two or more simple ones ; as, " Idle- 
ness produces want, vice, and misery." 

A clause is a subdivision of a compound sentence. 

A phrase is two or more words which express 
some relation of ideas, without affirmation or nega- 
tion ; as, " By the means appointed" — u To be plain 
with you." 

Words that are omitted by ellipsis, and that are 
necessarily understood, in order to complete the 
construction, must be supplied in parsing. 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULES OF SYNTAX. 

1. RELATION AND AGREEMENT. 
RULE I, 

Articles relate to the nouns which they limit. 

RULE II. 

A Noun or a Pronoun which is the subject of a 
verb, must be in the nominative case. 

rule in. 

A Noun or a personal Pronoun, used to explain a 
preceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in 
the same case. 

rule IV. 

Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns. 

rule v. 

A Pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the 
noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, 
number, and gender. 

RULE VI. 

When the antecedent is a collective noun convey- 
ing the idea of plurality, the Pronoun must agree with 
if, in the plural number. 

RULE VII. 

When a Pronoun has two or more antecedents 
connected by and, it must agree with them in the 
plural number. 

RULE VIII. 

When a Pronoun has two or more- singular antece- 
dents connected by or or nor, it must agree with 
them in the singular number. 



SYNTAX. 95 

RULE IX. 

A Verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, 
in person and number. 

rule x. 

When the nominative is a collective noun convey- 
ing the idea of plurality, the Verb must agree with it 
in the plural number. 

RULE XI. 

When a Verb has two or more nominatives con- 
nected by and, it must agree with them in the plural 
number. 

RULE XII. 

When a Verb has two or more singular nominatives 
connected by or or nor, it must agree with them in 
the singular number. 

RULE XIII. 

When Verbs are connected by a conjunction, they 
must either agree in mood, tense, and form, or have 
separate nominatives expressed. 

RULE XIV. 

Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or are 
governed by prepositions. 

RULE XV. 

Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives,or 
other adverbs. 

RULE XVI. 

Conjunctions connect either words or sentences* 

RULE XVII. 

Prepositions show the relations of things. 

RULE XVIII. 

Interjections have no dependent construction* 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. GOVERNMENT * 
RULE XIX. 

A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case, is gov- 
erned by the name of the thing possessed. 
RULE xx. 

Active-transitive verbs, and their imperfect and 
compound participles, govern the objective case. 

RULE XXI. 

Active-intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs,and 
their participles, take the same case after as before 
them, when both words refer to the same thing. 

RULE XXII. 

Prepositions govern the objective case. 

RULE XXIII. 

The preposition to governs the infinitive mood, 
and commonly connects it to a finite verb. 

RULE XXIV. 

The active verbs, bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, 
need, see, and their participles, take the infinitive af- 
ter them, without the preposition to. 
rule XXV. 

A noun or a pronoun is put absolute in the nomi- 
native, when its case depends on no other word. 

rule xxvi. 

A future contingency is best expressed by a verb 
in the Subjunctive, present; and a mere supposition, 
with indefinite time, by a verb in the Subjunctive, 
imperfect : but a conditional circumstance assumed 
as a fact, requires the Indicative Mood. 

* The arrangement of words is treated of, in the Observations under the Rules 
«f Syntax, page 1 13, et seq. 



SYNTAX. 97 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING, 

(CHAPTER VII.) 

In which it is required of the pupil — to distinguish 
the different parts of speech and their classes, 
to mention their modifications in order, to point 
out their relation, agreement, or government, 
and to apply the Rules of Syntax, Thus : 

This enterprise, alas! will never compensate us for the 
trouble and expense with which it has been attended. 

This is a pronominal adjective, of the singular number: and relates 
to enterprise; according to Rule IV, which says, " Adjec- 
tives relate to nouns or pronouns." 

enterprise is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, and nominative case : and is the subject of 
will compensate ; according to Rule II, which says, " A 
noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a verb, must be 
in the nominative case." 

alas is an interjection indicating sorrow: and is used independently ; 
according to Rule XVIII, which says, " Interjections have 
no dependent construction." 

will is an auxiliary to compensate. 

never is an adverb of time : and relates to will compensate; accord- 
ing to Rule XV, which says, " Adverbs relate to verbs, par- 
ticiples, adjectives, or other adverbs." 

mil compensate is a regular, active-transitive verb, from compen- 
sate, compensated, compensating, compensated ; found in 
the indicative mood, first-future tense, third person, and 
singular number : and agrees with its nominative enter- 
prise ; according to rule IX which says, " A verb must 
agree with its subject, or nominative, in person and num- 
ber." 

us is a personal pronoun, of the first person, plural number, mascu- 
line gender, and objective case : and is governed by will 
compensate; according to Rule XX, which says, " Active- 
transitive verbs, and their imperfect and compound par- 
ticiples, govern the objective case." 
for is a preposition : and shows the relation between trouble and 
expense and will compensate ; according to Rule XVII, 
which says, " Prepositions show the relations of things." 
the is the definite article : and relates to trouble and expense ; ac- 
cording to Rule I, which says, " Articles relate to the 
nouns which they limit." 
trouble is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, and objective case : and is governed by 
for ; according to Rule XXII, which says, "Prepositions 
govern the objective case." 

10 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

and is a copulative conjunction : and connects trouble and ex- 
pense; according to Rule XVI, which says, "Conjunc- 
tions connect either words or sentences." 

expense is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, and objective case : and is connected by 
and to trouble, and governed by for; according to Rule 
XXII, which says, " Prepositions govern the objective 
case." 

with is a preposition : and shows the relation between which and 
has been attended ; according to Rule XVII, which says, 
" Prepositions show the relations of things." 

which is a relative pronoun, representing trouble and expense, in the 
third person, plural number, and neuter gender ; accord- 
ing to Rule VII, which says, " When a pronoun has two or 
more antecedents connected by and, it must agree with 
them in the plural number:" and is in the objective case, 
being governed by with ; according to Rule XXII, which 
. says, "Prepositions govern the objective case." 

it is a personal pronoun, representing enterprise, in the third person, 
singular number, and neuter gender ; according to Rule 
V, which says, "A pronoun must agree with its antece- 
dent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in per- 
son, number, and gender:" and is in the nominative 
case, being the subject of has been attended ; according to 
Rule II, which says, " A noun or a pronoun which is the 
subject of a verb, must be in the nominative case." 

has been attended is a passive verb, from the regular active verb 
attend, attended, attending, attended, — passive, to be attend' 
ed; found in the indicative mood, perfect tense, third per- 
son, and singular number: and agrees with its nominative 
it ; according to Rule IX, which says, " A verb must agree 
with its subject, or nominative, in person and number." 

SECTION I.*— LESSON I. 

A man of a lively imagination, has a property in every 
thing which he sees, and exults in the happiness of the my- 
riads of liviug creatures that inhabit the woods, the lawns, 
and the mountains. 

As the branches of a tree return their sap to the root, 
from which it arose ; as a river pours its waters to the sea, 
from which its springs were supplied ; so the heart of a 
grateful man delights in returning a benefit received. 

Spring hangs her infant blossoms on the trees, 
Rock'd in the cradle of the western breeze. 



* The twenty-six sections of this chapter are severally adapted to the forego- 
ing Rules of Syntax. 



SYNTAX. 99 

SECTION II.— LESSON II. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident : that all men are 
created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator, 
with certain unalienable rights; that among these, are life, 
liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. 

They who are moderate in their expectations, meet with 
few disappointments. 

Which, now, of these three [men] was neighbour to him 
that fell among thieves ? He that showed mercy on him. 

Who takes care of all people, when they are sunk in 
sleep, when they cannot defend themselves, nor see if dan- 
ger approaches ? 

Men whose circumstances will permit them to choose 
their own way of life, are inexcusable, if they do not pur- 
sue that which their judgcinent tells them is the most laud- 
able. 

Thou rather, with thy sharp and sulph'rous bolt, 
Splitst the unwedgeable and gnarled oak. 

SECTION III.— LESSON III. 

In the fifth century, the Franks, a people of Germany, 
invaded France. 

Jerusalem, the Jewish capital, was destroyed by the Ro- 
mans under Titus the son of Vespasian. 

In the days of Joram, king of Israel, flourished the pro- 
phet Elisha. 

One of his brothers was there — he who conducts the 
free-school. 

Him, Tubal nam'd, the Vulcan of old times, 
The sword and falchion their inventor claim. 
Virtue itself 'scapes not calumnious strokes. 
All now are vanish'd! Virtue sole survives. 
Immortal, never-failing friend of man, 
His guide to happiness on high. 

SECTION IV.— LESSON IV. 

A. suspicious uncharitable spirit is not only inconsistent 
with all social virtue and happiness, but it is also, in itself, 
unreasonable and unjust. 



100 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Any man who attends to what passes within himself, 
may easily discover that the human character is a very 
complicated system. 

Among the vicious, friendship is coeval only with mutual 
satisfaction. 

Pitch upon that course of life which is the most excel- 
lent, and custom will render it the most delightful. 

No worldly enjoyments are adequate to the high de- 
sires and powers of an immortal spirit. 

The mighty tempest, and the hoary waste, 
Abrupt and deep, stretch'd o'er the buried earth, 
Awake to solemn thought. 

The gaudy, babbling, and remorseful day 
Is crept into the bosom of the sea. 

SECTION V.— LESSON V. 

The chief misfortunes that befall us in life, can be 
traced to some vices or follies which we have committed. 

The Psalms of David, present religion to us, in the most 
engaging dress ; communicating truths which philosophy 
could never investigate, in a style which poetry can never 
equal. He who has once tasted their excellencies, will de- 
sire to taste them again ; and he who tastes them oftenest, 
will relish them best. 

'Hassan,' said the caliph, < what canst thou have lost, 
whose wealth was the labour of thine own hand ; and what 
can have made thee sad, the spring of whose joy was in 
thy own bosom ?' 

He that has light within 'his own clear breast, 
May sit in the centre, and enjoy bright day: 
But he that hides a dark soul and foul thoughts, 
Benighted walks under the mid-day sun. 

LESSON VI. 

There is a simplicity in the words, which outshines the 
utmost pride of expression. 

He that can please nobody, is not so much to be pitied, 
as he that nobody can please. 

The meeting was so respectable, that the propriety of 
its decision, can hardly be questioned. 



SYNTAX. 



101 



God is on the side of virtue : for whoever dreads punish- 
ment, suffers it; and whoever deserves it, dreads it. 

Every society has a i igat to prescribe for itself, the 
terms on which its members shall be admitted. 

Th' Egyptian crown I to your hands remit; 
And with it take his heart who offers it. 

The age we honour, standeth not 
In locks of snow, or length of days; 

But in a life which knows no spot, 
A heart which heavenly wisdom sways. 

SECTION VI.— LESSON VII. 

The clergy declared against any peace which would not 
give to their prelates a right to sit in parliament. 

The fair sex, whose task is not, to mingle in the labours 
of public life, have their own part assigned them to act. 

The committee, not depending on the royal favour, de- 
manded the security of a legal and formal declaration of 
the rights they claimed. 

The English people showed that they were not insensi- 
ble to what was passing in Ireland. 

The majority of the assembly were more consistent and 
temperate : they considered that to decline a cessation, 
would be to refute all their professions of loyalty. 
By Wisdom tutor'd, Poetry exalts 
Her voice to ages ; and informs the page 
With music, image, sentiment and thought ; 
Never to die ! the treasure of mankind ! 
Their highest honour, and their purest joy! 

SECTION VII.— LESSON VIIL 

Socrates and Plato were celebrated for their wisdom ; 
they were the most eminent philosophers of Greece. 

And Pharaoh sent, and called for Moses and AaroDj 
and said unto them, 'I have sinned this time; the Lord is 
righteous, and I and my people are wicked.' 

Education when it works upon a noble mind, draws out 
to view many latent virtues and perfections, which with- 
out its aid, would never be able to make their appearance. 
10* 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Honour thy father and mother, both in word and deed, 
that a blessing may come upon thee from them. 

How gladly would the man recall to life 
The boy's neglected sire! a mother too, 
That softer friend, perhaps more gladly still, 
Might he demand them at the gates of death. 

SECTION VIII— LESSON IX. 

Snow or ice, when it melts, absorbs heat and produces cold. 

A marsh overgrown with willows, or a mountain shaded 
with oaks, is not only more beautiful, but more beneficial, 
than when it is naked and unadorned. 

Mark the effect of art upon a block of marble : how the 
skill of the polisher fetches out the colours, makes the sur- 
face shine, and discovers every ornamental cloud, spot, or 
vein, that runs through the body of it! What sculpture is 
*o a block of marble, education is to a human soul. 

The saint or moralist should tread 
This moss-grown alley, musing, slow ; 

He seeks, like me, the secret shade, 
But not, like me, to nourish wo. 

SECTION IX.— LESSON X 

J perceive the difference; it is very obvious. 
Thou sayst thou dost not know where thou art. 
He does not like the office, and he begs to be excused. 
It seems she is disappointed, and no one pities her: 
We depend upon your assistance ; for we need it. 
Do you recollect the words? I think they are these. 
They are found to be incorrect. Who knows them ? 
I retired from the throng, and sat down to read. 
Bad as the world is, respect is always paid to virtue* 
He stood alone, and was scoffed by the profane crew. 
He endeavoured to escape, but they caught him. 
She has finished her work, and we have seen it. 
It has often been done in this way, and has succeeded. 
We had left the company, and we did not see him. 
You will be wanted at home ; do not tarry. 
They will have returned to town ; you will see them* 

The seasons alter ; hoary-headed frosts 
Fall in the fresh lap of the crimson rose. 



SYNTAX. 103 

LESSON XI. 

Science may raise thee to eminence ; but religion alone 
can guide thee to felicity. 

If we would honour merit, we must not judge by ap- 
pearances : a visored villain may seem fair. 

The laurels of the warrior must at all times he died in 
blood, and bedewed with the tears of the widow and the 
orphan. Often are they stained by rapine and cruelty. 

It might be expected, that humanity iUelf would prevent 
them from breaking into the last retreat of the unfortunate. 

He should consider often, who can choose but once. 

She may have forgotten the occurrence. 

They cannot have been deceived, being eye-witnesses. 

t'hou must have made a mistake. 

They might have had opportunity to have returned. 

What could have induced him to act in that manner? 

It would have been desirable to have had his company. 

If her son had fallen, her latter dajs would have been 
rendered miserable ; he was her only support. 

Had we not been too hasty, we should have discovered 
these men's secret intentions. 

LESSON XII. 

If thy enemy be hungry, give him bread to eat ; if he be 
thirsty, give him water to drink. 

If thou duly respected thy teacher, he would never have 
occasion to pnuish thee. 

If the mind were left uncultivated, though nothing else 
should find entrance, vice certainly would. 

Say not thou, * I will recompense evil ,' but wait on the 
Lord, and he shall save thee. 

Never indulge revenge to your own hurt. 

Abstain from injuring others, if you wish to be in safety. 

Do thou attend to this advice; be not too confident. 

Do not waste your time ; omit no opportunity of improve- 
ment: time lost is lost for ever. 

Be not discouraged; your wishes may yet be gratified. 

Intemperance engenders disease, sloth produces poverty, 
pride creates disappointments, and dishonesty exposes to 
shame. 

Loose conversation operates on the soul, as poison does 
on the body. 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON XIII. 



A variety of pleasing objects, charms the eye. 

Do not we all need assistance ? Ought we, then, to with- 
hold our aid from others ? Charity, is kind to all. 

The narrative of his dangers and escapes, is interesting. 

Humility, as well as merit, engages esteem. 

A sordid mind is incapable of friendship. 

Neither have I, nor has my partner, acceded to this re- 
quest. 

The injuries we do, and those we suffer, are seldom 
weighed in the same balance. 

Why dost thou build the hall, sou of the winged days? 
thou lookest from thy towers today; yet a few years, and 
the blast of the desert comes; it howls in thy empty court. 

Light! from whose rays all beauty springs, 
Darkness! whose wide-expanded wings 

Involve the dusky globe, 
Praise him who, when the heavens he spread, 
Darkness his thick pavilion made, 

And light his regal robe. 

SECTION X.— LESSON XIV. 

The generality of his hearers were favourable to his 
doctrines. 

The public are often deceived by false appearances and 
extravagant pretensions. 

A considerable number of the confederates were induced 
to abandon the counsels of the nuncio. 

Around Bethesda's healing wave, 

Waiting to hear the rustling wing 
Which spoke the angel nigh who gave 

Its virtue to that holy spring, 
With patience and with hope endued, 
Were seen the gather'd multitude. 

SECTION XL— LESSON XV. 

Our good and evil proceed from ourselves. 
Sincerity and truth form the basis of every virtue* 



SYNTAX. 105 

Riches, honours, and pleasures, steal away the heart 
from religion. 

On some occasions, mildness and forbearance are more 
powerful than vehemence and severity. 

Virtue, diligence, and industry, joined with good temper 
and prudence, must ever be the surest means of prosperity. 

Day and night yield us contrary blessings ; and, at the 
same time, assist each other, by giving fresh lustre to the 
delights of both. 

For never any thing can be amiss, 
When simpleness and duty tender it. 

The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, 
And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, 

Await alike the inevitable hour : 

The paths of glory lead but to the grave. 

SECTION XII— LESSON XVI. 

Man's happiness or misery is 3 in a great measure, put 
into his own hands. 

When sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune, affects 
us, the sincerity of friendship is proved. 

Neither his vote, his influence, nor his purse, was ever 
withheld from the cause in which he had engaged. 

Has not sloth, or pride, or ill temper, or sinful passion, 
misled you from the path of sound and wise conduct? 

Fools! who from hence into the notion fall, 
That vice or virtue there is none at all. 

If white and black blend, soften, and unite 
A thousand ways, is there no black or white? 

SECTION XIII— LESSON XVII. 

Cheerfulness keeps up a kind of day-light in the mind, 
and fills it with a steady and perpetual serenity. 

King Solomon built a temple, and dedicated it to the Al- 
mighty. 

The pleasures of sense resemble a foaming torrent, which, 
after a disorderly course, speedly runs out, and leaves an 
empty and offensive channel. 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Bursting into tears, she rose, and tore a lock from her 
hair; a lock which waved o'er her heaving breast. 

Loose, then, from earth the grasp of fond desire, 
Weigh anchor, and some happier clime explore. 

SECTION XIV.—LESSON XVIII. 

He, stooping down and looking in, saw the linen clothes 
lying. 

A man used to vicissitudes, is not easily dejected. 

A habit of sincerity in acknowledging faults, is a guard 
against committing them. 

This is a measure founded on justice, supported by pre- 
cedent, and warranted by necessity. 

The bounty displayed in the earth, equals the grandeur 
manifested in the heavens. 

Sitting is the best posture for deliberation; standing, for 
persuasion. A judge, therefore, should speak sitting ; a 
pleader, standing. 

Having sold his patrimony, he engaged in merchandise. 

Amaz'd I stood, harrowed with grief and fear. 

Lips busy, and eyes fix'd, foot falling slow, 
Arms hanging idly down, hands clasp* d below, 
Interpret to the marking eye distress, 
Such as its symptoms can alone express. 

SECTION XV.— LESSON XIX. 

How soon man's earthly enjoyments pass away ! 

We naturally look with strong emotion to the spot, where 
t<he ashes of those we have loved, repose. 

Veturia's son's wife, Volumnia, who was sitting with her 
when the women arrived, and who was greatly surprised 
at their coming, hastily asked them the meaning of so 
extraordinary an appearance. 

Virtue is bold, and goodness never fearful. 

The soul that sees Him, or receives, sublira'd, 
New faculties, or learns at least t' employ 
More worthily the powers she own'd before. 

The canker galls the infants of the spring, 
Too oft before their buttons be disclosed; 
And, in the morn and liquid dew of youth, 
Contagious blastments are most imminent. 



SYNTAX. 107 



SECTION XVI— LESSON XX. 

Prosperity gains friends, and adversity tries them. 

If you desire to be free from sin, avoid temptation. 

The ancient Russians believed, that their northern moun- 
tains encompassed the globe. 

I disregard their imputations, because I do not merit 
them. 

A judge ought to be influenced only by reason and evi- 
dence. 

Look ! as I blow this feather from my face, 
And as the air blows it to me again; 
Obeying with my wind when I do blow, 
And yielding to an other when it blows; 
Commanded always by the greater gust: 
Such is the lightness of you common men. 

To thee who ownst that earthly bed, 
Ah ! what will every dirge avail 1 

Or tears which love and pity shed, 
That mourn beneath the gliding sail! 

SECTION XVII— LESSON XXI 

Most of the troubles which we meet with in the world, 
arise from an irritable temper, or from improper conduct. 

The want of regularity in the management of our affairs, 
very often prevents the successful accomplishment of those 
undertakings in which our fortuue, comfort, and happiness, 
are involved. 

By the faults of others, wise men learn to correct their own. 

O momentary grace of mortal men, 

Which we more hunt for than the grace of God I 

Who builds his hopes in air of your fair looks, 

Lives like a drunken sailor on a mast; 

Ready, with ev'ry nod, to tumble down 

Into the fatal bowels of the deep. 

Thou art the source and centre of all minds v , 
Thfir only point of rest, eternal Word! 
From thfp departiag, they are lost, and rove 
At random, without honour, hope, or peace. 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

SECTION XVIIL— LESSON XXIL 

At that hour, O how vain was all sublunary happiness ! 
Alas, said I, man was made in vain ! how is he given 
away to misery and mortality ! 

O stretch thy reign, fair Peace, from shore to shore. 
Till conquest cease, and slavery be no more ! 

O Nature, how in every charm supreme ! 

Whose votaries feast on raptures ever new ! 
O for the voice and fire of seraphim, 

To sing thy glories with devotion due! 

Hail! wedded love, 
Perpetual fountain of domestic sweets! 

SECTION XIX.— LESSON XXIII. 

Charles's resignation filled all Europe with astonishment 

Stately are his steps of age ! lovely the remnant of his 
years! A crown of glory are his hoary locks? 

Joy rose in Carthon's face : he lifted his heavy eyes. 

Eliza's sensibility is such, that her brother's misfortunes 
will greatly afflict her. 

A dutiful son will hear his father's instruction. 

What is the bigot's torch, the tyrant's chain ? 
I smile on death, if heaven-ward hope remain. 
Ye thrones, dominions, virtues, powers, 
Join ye your joyful song with ours, 

With us your voices raise; 
From age to age extend the lay, 
To heaven's eternal Monarch pay 

Hymns of eternal praise. 

SECTION XX.— LESSON XXIV. 

Do not insult a poor man: his misery entitles him to pity, 

When our vices leave us, we flatter ourselves, that we 
leave them. 

While riotous indulgence enervates both the body and 
the mind, purity and virtue heighten all the powers of 
human fruition. 

What avails the show of external liberty, to one who has 
lost the government of himself? 



SYNTAX. 109 

Princes have but their titles for their glories, 
An outward honour for an inward toil; 
And, for uofelt imaginations, 
They often feel a world of restless cares. 

No flocks that range the valley, free, 

To slaughter I condemn : 
Taught by that Power that pities me t 

I learn to pity them. 

SECTION XXI— LESSON XXV. 

The memory of mischief, is no desirable fame. 

Virtue is the surest road to happiness. 

Solid merit is a cure for ambition. 

Meekuess and modesty are true and lasting ornaments. 

Universal benevolence and patriotic zeal appear to have 
been the motives of all his actions. 

Soon after his father's demise, he was crowned emperor. 

We, who never were his favourites, did not expect these 
attentions ; and we could scarcely believe it was he. 

Junius Brutus, the son of Marcus Brutus, and Collati- 
nus, the husband of Lucretia, were chosen first consuls in 
Rome. 

The son, bred in sloth becomes a spendthrift, a profligate, 
and goes out of the world a beggar. 

I am, as thou art, a reptile of the earth : my life is a 
moment ; and eternity — in which days, and years, and ages, 
are nothing — eternity is before me, for which l also should 
prepare. 

The Lord of all, himself through all diffus'd, 
Sustains, and is the life of all that lives. 
Nature is but a name for an effect 
Whose cause is God. 

SECTION XXII.— LESSON XXVI. 

Titles of honour conferred upon those who have no per- 
sonal merit, are like the royal stamp set upon base metal. 

In the varieties of life, we are inured to habits both of 
the active and the suffering virtues. 

11 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

By disappointments and trials, the violence of our pas- 
sions is tamed. 

In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. 

There is none like unto the Gvd of Jeshurun, who 
rideth upon the heaven in thy help, and iu his excellency 
on the sky. 

For the kingdom of God is not in word, but in power. 

In the death of a man there is no remedy. 

In every region the book of nature is open before us. 

Ah ! who can tell the triumphs of the mind, 
By truth illumin'd, and by taste refm'd ? 

SECTION XXIIL— LESSON XXVII. 

Leaning my head upon my hand, I began to figure to 
myself the miseries of confinement. 

Our ambassadors are instructed to negotiate a peace ; 
and there is reason to think they will succeed. 

I shall henceforth do good and avoid evil, without respect 
to the opinions of men ; and resolve to solicit only the ap- 
probation of that Being, whom alone Ave are sure to please 
by endeavouring to please him. 

Delightful task! to rear the tender thought, 
To teach the young idea how to shoot, 
To pour the fresh instruction o'er the mind, 
To breathe the enlivening spirit, and to fix 
The generous purpose in the glowing breast. 

SECTION XXIV.— LESSON XXVIII. 

You need not go. I heard my father bid the boy bring 
your trunk, and saw him go for it. I dare say it will be safe. 

Let him who desires to see others happy, make haste to 
give, while his gift can be enjoyed. 

JNTone but the virtuous dare hope in bad circumstances. 

Ye headlong torrents, rapid and profound; 

Ye softer floods, that lead the humid maze 

Along the vale; and thou majestic main, 

A secret world of wonders in thyself; 

Souud His stupendous praise, whose greater voice 

Or bids you roar, or bids your roarings fall* 



SYNTAX. 113 

SECTION XXV.— LESSON XXIX. 

This proposition being admitted, I now state my ar- 
gument. 

There being much obscurity in the case, he refuses to 
decide upon it. 

They being absent, we cannot come to a determination. 

The senate consented to the creation of tribunes of the 
people, Appius alone protesting against the measure. 

Fathers! Senators of Rome! the arbiters of nations! to 
you I fly for refuge. 

Remember, Almet, that the world in which thou art 
placed, is but the road to another. 

Return, my son, to thy labour; thy food shall again be 
tasteful, and thy rest shall be sweet. 

Ingratitude ! thou marble-hearted fiend, 

More hideous, when thou showst thee in a child, 

Than the sea-monster! 

O wretched we! why were we hurried down 
This lubric and aduPtrate age! 

LESSON XXX 

What misery doth the vicious man secretly endure! 
Adversity! how blunt are all the arrows of thy quiver, in 
comparison with those of guilt ! 

Remember the uncertainty of life, and restrain thy hand 
from evil. He that was yesterday a king, behold him dead, 
and the beggar is better than he. 

The lamb thy riot dooms to bleed to-day, 
Had he thy reason, would he skip and play? 

Hail! mildly-pleasing Solitude, 
Companion of the wise and good! 

All this dread order break — for whom ? for thee ? 
Vile worm! — Oh madness! pride! impiety! 
My Absalom! the voice of nature cried, 
Oh! that for thee thy father could have died ! 
For bloody was the deed, and rashly done, 
That slew my Absalom! — my son! — my son! 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

SECTION XXVI.— LESSON XXXI. 

Though hand join in hand, the wicked shall not be un- 
punished. 

Let him that hastens to be rich, take heed lest he sud- 
denly become poor. 

If the king were present, Cleon; there would be no need 
of my answering to what thou hast just proposed. 

He seems to have made an injudicious choice, though 
he is esteemed a sensible man. 

Inspiring thought, of rapture yet to be! 
The tears of love were hopeless but for theet 
If in that frame no deathless spirit dwells 
If that faint murmur be the last farewell, 
If fate unite the faithful but to part, 
Why is their memory sacred to the heart ? 



RULES OF SYNTAX, 

WITH EXAMPLES, NOTES, OBSERVATIONS, AND FALSE 
SYNTAX. 

1. RELATION AND AGREEMENT. 

RULE I. 

Articles relate to the nouns which they limit: as, 
"At a little distance from the ruins of the abbey, 
stands an aged elm," 

Oes. 1. — Articles often relate to nouns understood ; as, " The 
{river} Thames" — " Pliny the younger" [man] — " The honourable 
[body,] the Legislature" — " The animal [world] and the vegetable 
world" — "Neither to the right [hand], nor to the left" [hand] — 
" He was a good man, and a just [man], — u The pride of swain 11 
Palemon was, the generous [man], and the rich" [man]. 



SYNTAX. 113 

Obs. 2. — It is not always necessary to repeat the article before 
several nouns in the same construction ; the same article serves 
sometimes to limit the signification of more than one noun : but 
we doubt the propriety of ever construing two articles as relating 
to one and the same noun. 

Obs 3. — The article precedes its noun, and is never, by itself, 
placed after it. 

Oes. 4. — When an adjective precedes the noun, the article is 
placed before the adjective ; as, 

" The private path, the secret acts of men, 
If noble, far the noblest of their lives." 
Except the adjectives all, such, many, ivhat, and those which are 
preceded by the adverbs too, so, as, or how ; as, "All the materials 
were bought at too dear a rate." 

Obs. 5. — When the adjective is placed after the noun, the arti- 
cle generally retains its place before the noun, and is not repeated 
before the adjective; as, " A man ignorant of astronomy" — " The 
primrose pale." In Greek, when an adjective is placed after its 
noun, if the article is prefixed to the noun, it is repeated before the 
adjective; as, H 7ro\m r\ peyuXii, The city the great; i. e. The 
great city 

Obs. 6. — The definite article and an adjective are sometimes 
placed after the noun to which they both relate; as, " Section the 
fourth" — " Henry the Eighth." The latter example is perhaps 
elliptical. 

Obs. 7. — The definite article is often prefixed to comparatives 
and superlatives; and its effect is, (as Murray observes,) "to mark 
the degree the more strongly, and to define it the more precisely." 
as, " The oftener I see him the more I respect him." — " A consti- 
tution the most fit" — " A claim, the strongest, and the most easily 
comprehended" — " The men the most difficult to be replaced." 
In these cases the article seems to relate only to the adjective or 
adverb following it. 

Obs. 8. — The article the is applied to nouns of both numbers: 
as, The man, the men — The good boy, the good boys. 

Obs. 9. — The article the is generally prefixed to adjectives that 
are used, by ellipsis, as nouns; as, 

" The great, the gay, shall they partake 
The heav'n that thou alone canst make ?" — Cowper. 

Obs. 10. — The article the is sometimes elegantly used in stead 
of a possessive pronoun ; as, " Men who have not bowed the knee 
to the image of Baal." — Rom. xi. 4. 

Obs. 11 — An or a implies One, and is prefixed to nouns of the 
singular number only ; as, A man, a good boy. 

Obs. 12. — An or a is sometimes prefixed to an adjective of num- 
ber, when the noun following is plural ; as, A few days — a hun- 
dred sheep. In these cases the article relates only to the adjec- 
tive. Some grammarians call these words of number nouns, and 
suppose an ellipsis of the preposition of. Murray and others call 
11 * 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

them adjectives, and suppose a peculiarity of construction in the 
article. 

Obs. 13. — An or a has sometimes the import of each, or every: as, 
" He came twice a year." The article in this sense with a prepo- 
sition understood, is preferable to the mercantile per, so frequently 
used; as, " Fifty cents [for] a bushel," — not, "per bushel." 

Obs. 14. — A, as prefixed to participles in ing, or used in composi- 
tion, is a preposition ; being, probably, the French d, signifying to, 
at, on, in, or of; as, " He is gone a hunting" — " She lies a-bed 
all day." 

Obs. 15. — An is sometimes a conjunction, signifying, if; as, 
" Nay, an thou'lt mouthe, I'll rant as well as thou." — Shak. 

Note I. — When the indefinite article is required, a 
should always be used before the sound of a consonant, and 
an, before that of a vowel ; as, " With the talents of an 
angel, a man may be a fool." — Young. 

Obs. — An was formerly used before all words beginning with h, 
"and before several other words which are now pronounced in such 
a manner as to require a : thus, we read in the Bible, "An house — 
an hundred — an one. " &c. 

Note II. — When nouns are joined in construction, 
without a close connexion and common dependence, the 
article must be repeated. The following seutence is 
therefore inaccurate, "She never considered the quality, 
but merit of her visiters." The should be inserted before 
merit. 

Note III. — When adjectives are connected, and the 
qualities belong to things individually different, though of 
the same name, the article should be repeated; as, "A 
black and a white horse." But when the qualities all be- 
long to the same thing or things, the article should not be 
repeated; as, "v4 black and white horse." 

Obs. 1. — By a repetition of the article before several adjectives 
in the same construction, a repetition of the noun is implied ; but 
without a repetition of the article, the adjectives are confined to 
one and the same noun. 

Obs. 2. — To avoid repetition, we sometimes join inconsistent 
qualities to a plural noun; as, " The old and new testaments," for 
" The old and the' new testament. 1 ' 

Note IV. — The article should not be used before the 
names of virtues, vices, passions, arts, or sciences ; before 



SYNTAX. 115 

simple proper names ; or before any nouo whose significa- 
tion is sufficiently definite without it ; as, " Falsehood is 
odious." — " Iron is a useful mineral. 

Note V. — When titles are mentioned merely as titlr s, 
the article should not be used; as, u He is styled Mar- 
quis," 

Note VI. — In expressing a comparison, if both nouns 
refer to the same subject, the article should not be in- 
serted ; if to different subjects, it should not be omitted : 
thus, if we say, " He is a better teacher than poet," we 
compare different qualifications of the same man ; but if 
we say, "He is a better teacher than a poet, "we refer to 
different men. 

Note VII. — The definite article, or some other defi- 
nitive, is generally required before the antecedent to the 
pronouu who or which in a restrictive clause; as, $*Thc 
men who were present, consented." 

FALSE SYNTAX, 

Examples under Note 1. 

He went into an house. 

[Not proper, because the article an is used before house, which 
begins with the sound of a consonant. But, according to Note 1st 
under Rule 1st, "When the indefinite article is required, a should 
always be used before the sound of a consonant, and an before 
that of a vowel. Therefore, an should be a; thus, He went into 
a house.] 

This is an hard saying. 

A humble heart shall find favour. 

Passing from an earthly to an heavenly diadem. 

Few have the happiness of living with such an one. 

She evinced an uniform adherence to the truth. 

A hospital is an asylum for the sick. 

This is truly an wonderful invention. 

He is an younger man than we supposed. 

An humorsome child is never long pleased. 

A careless man is unfit for a hostler. 

Under Note 2. 

Avoid rude sports : an eye is soon lost, or bone broken. 
As the drop of the bucket, and dust of the balance. 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

JNTot a word was uttered, nor sign given. 
F despise not the doer, but deed. 

Under Note 3. 

What is the difference between the old and new method ? 

The sixth aud tenth have a close resemblance. 

Is Paris on the right hand, or left 1 

Does Peru join the Atlantic, or Pacific ocean ? 

He was influenced both by a just and generous principle. 

The book was read by the old and young. 

I have both the large and small grammar. 

Is the north and the south line measured ? 

Are the two north and the south lines both measured ? 

Are both the north and south line measured ? 

Are the north line and south both measured ? 

Are both the north and south lines measured ? 

Are both the north lines and south measured ? 

Under Note 4. 

Cieon was an other sort of a man. 

There is, a species of an animal, called a seal. 

Let us wait in the patience, and the quietness. 

The contemplative mind delights in the silence. 

Arithmetic is a branch of the mathematics. 

You will never have an other such a chance. 

I expected some such an answer. 

And I persecuted this way unto the death. 



Under Note 



b. 



He is entitled to the appellation of a gentleman. 

Cromwell assumed the title of a Protector. 

Her father is honoured with the title of an Earl. 

The chief magistrate is styled a President. 

The highest title in the state is that of the Governor. 

Under Note 6. 

He is a better writer than a reader. 

He was an abler mathematician than a linguist* 

I should rather have an orange than apple. 



SYNTAX. 117 

Under Note 7. 

Words which are signs of complex ideas, are liable to be 

misunderstood. 
Carriages which were formerly in use, were very clumsy. 
The place is not mentioned by geographers who wrote at 

that time. 

RULE II. 

A Noun or a Pronoun which is the subject of a 
verb, must be in the nominative case : as, 

"J know thou sayst it : says thy life the same ?" 

Oes. 1. — The subject, or nominative, is generally placed before 
the verb; as, " Peace dawned upon his mind." — "What is written 
in the law ?" 

Obs. 2. — But, in the following cases, the subject is placed after 
the verb, or after the first auxiliary : 

1 — When a question is asked, without an interrogative pronoun 
in the nominative case; as, "Shall mortalsbe implacable ?" — "What 
art thou doing ?" 

2. When the verb is in the imperative mood ; as, " Go thou" 

3. When an earnest wish, or other strong feeling, is expressed ; 
as, " May she he happy P' "How wprewe struck !" 

4. When a supposition is made without a conjunction ; as, 
" Were it true, it would not injure us." 

5. When neither or nor, signifying and not, precedes the verb ; 
as, " This was his fear; nor was his apprehension groundless." 

6. When, for the sake of emphasis, some word or words are 
placed before the verb, which more naturally come after it; as, 
" Here am I." — " Narrow is the way" — " Silver and gold have I 
none." 

7. When the verb has no regimen, and is itself emphatical ; as, 
" Echo the mountains round." 

8. When the verbs say, think, reply, and the like, introduce the 
parts of a dialogue ; as, " ' Son of affliction,' said Omar, < who art 
thou ?' ' My name,' replied the stranger, i is Hassan.' " 

9. When the adverb there precedes the verb ; as, " There lived 
a man." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples under Rule 2. 

Thee must have been idle. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun thee which is the subject of 
the verb must have been, is in the objective case. But, according' 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

to Rule 2d, " A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a verb, 
must be in the nominative case." Therefore thee should be thou ; 
thus, Thou must have been idle.] 

Him that is studious, will improve. 

Them that seek wisdom, will be wise. 

She arid me are of the same age. 

You are two or three years older than us. 

Are not John and thee cousins? 

I can write as handsomely as thee. 

Nobody said so but him. 

Whom dost thou think was there? 

Who broke this slate ? Me. 

We are alone; here's none but thee and I. 

Them that honour me, I will honour; and them that des- 
pise me, shall be lightly esteemed. 

He whom, in that instance, was deceived, is a man of 
sound judgement. 

RULE III. 

A Noun or a personal Pronoun, used to explain 
a preceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, 
in the same case: as, 

" But he, our gracious Master, kind as just, 
Knowing our frame, remembers we are dust." 

Obs. 1. — Apposition is the using of different words or appella- 
tions, to designate the same thing. Apposition also denotes the 
relation which exists between the words which are so employed, 

Obs. 2. — The explanatory word is sometimes placed first, espe- 
cially among the poets; as, 
" From bright'ning fields of ether fair disclos'd, 

Child of the sun, refulgent Summer comes." — Thomson. 

Obs. 3. — The pronouns of the first and second persons, are often 
prefixed to nouns merely to distinguish their person. In this ease 
of apposition, the words are not separated by a comma; as, "/ 
.John saw these things." — " His praise, ye brooks, attune." 

Obs. 4. — When two or more nouns of the possessive case are put 
in apposition, the possessive termination added to one, denote? 
the case of both or all ; as, " His brother Philip's wife" — " John 
Bapiist's head"—" At ray friend Johnson's, the bookseller." By a 
repetition of the possessive sign, a distinct governing noun is im- 
plied, and the apposition is destroyed. 

Obs. 5. — In like manner, a noun without the possessive sign, if= 
sometimes put in apposition with a pronoun of the possessive 
qa»e ; as, 



SYNTAX. 119 

" Thus shall mankind his guardian care engage, 
The promis'd father of the future age." — Pope. 

Obs. 6. — When a noun or a pronoun is repeated for the sake of 
emphasis, the word which is repeated, may properly be said to be 
in apposition with that which is first introduced : as, " They have 
forsaken me, the Fountain of living waters, and hewed them out 
cisterns, broken cisterns, that can hold no water." — Jer. ii. 13. 

Obs. 7. — A noun is sometimes put in apposition to a sentence ; 
as, " He permitted me to consult his library — a kindness which I 
shall not forget." 

Obs. 8. — A distributive term, in the singular number, is fre- 
quently construed with a comprehensive plural; as, " They reap 
vanity every one with his neighbour." 

Obs. 9. — To express a reciprocal action or relation, each other 
and one an other are employed. The words separately considered, 
are singular; but, taken together, they imply plurality: and they 
can be properly construed only after plurals, or singulars taken 
conjointly. Each other is usually applied to two objects ; and one 
an other, to more than two. If the expressions be analyzed, each 
and one will appear to be in the nominative case, and other, in the 
objective; as, " They love each other;" i. e. each loves the other. 
Each is properly in apposition with they, and other governed by 
the verb. The governing word sometimes comes between them ; 
as, " Be ye helpers one of another:" sometimes after them; as, 
,: Ye are one an other's joy.'' 

Obs. 10. — The common and the proper name of an object are 
often associated, and put in apposition ; as, The river Thames — 
The ship Albion — The poet Cowper — Lake Erie — Cape May — 
Mount Atlas. But the proper name of a place, when accompa- 
nied by the common name, is generally put in the objective case, 
and preceded by of; as, The city of New-York — The land of 
Canaan. 

Obs. 11. — The several proper names which distinguish an indi- 
vidual, are always in apposition, and should be taken together 
in parsing; as, < : William Pitt — Marcus Tullius Cicero. 

Obs. 12. — When an object acquires a new name or character 
from the action of a verb, the new appellation is put in apposition 
with the object of the active verb, and in the nominative after the 
passive ; as, " They named the child John — The child w r as named 
John." — " They elected him president" — He was elected president." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples under Rule 3. 

I have received a letter from ray cousin, she that was 
here last wetk. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun she is in the nominative case^ 
and is used to explain the noun cousin, which is in the objective 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

case. But, according to Rule 3d, " A noun or a personal pro- 
noun, used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun, is put, by 
apposition in the same case." Therefore, she should be her; 
thus, I have received a letter from my cousin, her that was here 
last week.] 

The book is a present from ray brother Richard, he that 

keeps the bookstore. 
I am going to see my frieuds in the country, they that 

we met at the ferry. 
This dress was made by Catharioe, the milliner, she that 

we saw at work. 
Dentiis, the gardeuer, him that gave me the tulips, has 
promised me a piony. 

Resolve me, why the cottager, and king, 
Him whom sea-sever'd realms obey, and him 
Who steals his whole dominion from the waste, 
Repelling winter blasts with mud and straw, 
Disquieted alike, draw sigh for sigh. 

RULE IY. 

Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns : as, " He is 
a wise man, though he is young" 

Oes. 1. — Adjectives often relate to nouns understood; as, < The 
nine' [muses].— 1 Philip was one of the seven' [deacons].— \ He came 
unto his own [possessions], and his own [men] received him not.' 

Obs. 2.— Tn as much as qualities belong only to things, most 
grammarians teach that every adjective belongs to some .noun, 
expressed or understood; and suppose a countless number of 
unnecessary ellipses. But it is evident that, in the construction of 
sentences, adjectives often relate immediately to, pronouns, and, 
through them, to the nouns they represent. 

Obs. 3. When an adjective follows a verb, and is not followed 

by a noun, it generally relates to the subject of the verb ; as, " Jam 
glad that the door is made toide." 

Obs. 4. An adjective sometimes relates to a phrase or sentence, 

which is substituted for a noun; as, " That he should refuse, is not 
strange." 

Obs. 5.— Adjectives preceded by the definite article, are often 
used, by ellipsis, as nouns. They designate those classes of objects 
which are characterized by the qualities they express. They are 
most commonly of the plural number, and refer to persons, places, 
or things, understood y as, "The careless [persons] and the impru- 



SYNTAX. 121 

dent, the giddy and the fickle, the ungrateful and the interested, 
everywhere meet us." 

" Together let us beat this ample field, 

Try what the open [places], what the covert, yield."— Pope. 
Obs. 6.— The adjective is generally placed immediately before 
its noun ; as, " Vain man, is grandeur given to gay attire?" 

Obs. 7.— But, in the following instances, the adjective is placed 
alter the word to which it relates : 

1. When other words depend on the adjective; as, " 4 mind 
conscious of right"— ■" A tree three feet thick." 

2. When the quality results from the action of a verb : as, " Vir- 
tue renders life happy." 

3. When the adjective would thus be more clearly distinctive ; 
as, " Goodness infinite"— 1 ' Wisdom umearchable." ' 

4. When a verb comes between the adjective and the noun or 
pronoun ; as, " /grew uneasy at her presence."— Mdison. 

Obs. 8.— In some cases, the adjective may either precede or 
follow the noun : as, 

1. In poetry ; as, " —Wilt thou to the isles 

Atlantic, to the rich Hesperian clime, 
Fly in the train of Autumn ?"—Menside. 

2. In some technical expressions; as, « A notary public " or,- 
" A public notary." ? ' 

3. When an adverb precedes the adjective ; as, " A being infi- 
nitely wise, or, " An infinitely wise Being." 

4. When several adjectives belong to the same noun ; as, " A 
woman, modest, sensible, and virtuous," or, « A modest, sensible, 
and virtuous woman." 

Obs. 9.— An emphatic adjective may be placed first in the sen- 
tence, though it belong after the verb ; as, " Weighty is the anger 
of the righteous." ° 

Obs. 10. — By an ellipsis of the noun, an adjective with a prepo- 
sition before it, is sometimes equivalent to an adverb : as, " In par- 
ticular ;" that is, in a particular manner ; equivalent to, "particu- 
larly" 

Note I. — Adjectives that imply unity or plurality, 
must agree with their douos in number; as, That sort 
those sorts. 

Note II. — AVhen the adjective is necessarily plural, 
the nouu should be made so too; as, "Twenty pounds" 
not, " Twenty pound." 

Obs. 1. — In some peculiar phrases this rule appears to be disre^ 
garded ; as, " Twenty sail of vessels"—" A hundred head of cattle" 
— " Two hundred pennyworth of bread." 

Obs. 2. — To denote a collective number, a singular adjective 
may precede a plural one; as, "One hundred men"— « Evetv 
six week?/' ^ 

12 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Obs 3.— To denote plurality, the adjective many, may, in like 
manner, precede era or a, with a singular noun ; as, 

" Full many a flower is born to blush unseen."— Gray. 

Note III.— The noun means, and some others, have 
the same form in both numbers; they should therefore > be 
used with an adjective of the singular or the pural number, 
as the sense requires; as, "By this means they bear wit- 
ness to each other."— Burke. 

Note IV.— The comparative degree can only be used 
in reference to two objects, or classes of objects; the supci- 
lative compares one or more things with all others of the 
same class" whether few or many; as, "Edward is taller 
than James; he is the largest of my scholars^ 

NoTE v.— When the comparative degree is employed, 
the latter term of comparison should never include the lor- 
mer; as, " Iron is more useful than all the metals." It 
should be, " than all the other metals:' , . . . : 

Note VI.— When the superlative degree is employed, 
the latter term of comparison should never exclude the 
former: as, « A fondness for show, is, of all other follies, 
the most vain." The word other should be expunged. 

Note VII.— Comparative terminations, and adverbs oi 
degree, should not be applied to adjectives that are not sus- 
ceptible of comparison ; and all double comparisons should 
be avoided: as, « Maxims too perfect for human nature. 
It should be, >too excellent."— " Less nobler plunder — 
" The most straitest sect." Expunge less and most. 

Note VIII— When adjectives are connected by con- 
junctions, the shortest and simplest should be placed first ; 
as " He is older and more respectable than his brother. 

Note IX— An adjective and its noun may be taken as 
a compound term, to which other adjectives may be pre- 
fixed The most distinguishing quality should be express- 
ed next to the noun ; as, * A fine young man,"— not " A 

y °NoTE X— Iu prose, the use of adjectives for adverbs, 
is improper: as, « He writes ^«<'-say, -elegantly. 

Obs 1 —In poetry an adjective relating to the noun, is sometimes 
elegantly «X stead of an adverb qualifying the verb or partis 
Se as " To thee I bend the knee ; to thee my thoughts 
F Continual climb."— Thomson. 



SYNTAX. 123 

Obs. 2. — In order to determine, in difficult cases, whether an 
adjective or an adverb is required, the learner should carefully 
attend to the definitions of these parts of speech, and consider 
whether, in the case in question, quality or manner is to be 
expressed : if the former, an adjective is proper ; if the latter, 
an adverb. The following examples will illustrate this point: 
" She looks cold; — she looks coldly on him." — "I sat silent; — I 
sat silently musing."—" Stand^rm; — maintain your cause firmly." 

Note XL — The pronoun them should never be used as 
an adjective ia lieu of those : say, " I bought those books,* 5 
— not, " them books." 

Note XII. — "When the pronominal adjectives, this and 
that, or these and those, are contrasted, this or these,shou\d 
represent the latter of the antecedent terms, and that or 
these, the former : as, 

" And reason raise o'er iustinct as you can, 

In this, 'tis God directs, in that, 'tis man." — Pope. 

" Farewell my friends ! farewell my foes 1 

My peace with these, my love with those /"— Burns. 

Note XII I. — The pronominal adjectives, each, evert/, 
either, and neither, are always in the third person singular; 
and, when they are the leading words in their clauses,they 
require verbs and pronouns, to agree with them according- 
ly : as, "Each of you is entitled to his share." 

Note XIV. — Either and neither relate to two things 
only : when more are referred to, any and none should be 
used instead of them; as, "Any of the three,"— not, "Either 
of the three." " None of the four,"— not, " Neither of 
the four." 

FALSE SYNTAX 

Examples under Note 1. 

Those sort of people you will find to be troublesome. 

[Not proper, because the adjective those is in the plural number, 
and does not agree with its noun sort, which is singular But, ac- 
cording to Note 1st under Rule 4th, " Adjectives that imply unity 
or plurality, must agree with their nouns in number." Therefore, 
those should be that ; thus, That sort of people you will find to be 
troublesome.] 

Things of these sort are easily understood. 
Who broke that tongs ? 
Where did I drop this scissors ? 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Bring out that oats ? 

Extinguish that embers. 

I disregard this minutiae. 

Those kind of injuries we need not fear. 

What was the height of those gallows which Haman erected. 

Under Note 2. 

We rode about ten miles an hour. 

'Tis for a thousand pound. 

How deep is the water ? About six fathom. 

The lot is twenty-five foot wide. 

I have bought eight load of wood. 

Under Note 3. 

Industry is one mean of obtaining competence. 

Scholasticus sought opportunities to display his learning ; 
and, by these means, rendered himself ridiculous. 

Caled was remarkable for his modesty, docility, and inge- 
nuity ; and, by this means, he acquired both knowledge 
and fame. 

Under Note 4. 

He chose the latter of these three. 

Trissyllables are often accented on the former syllable. 

Which are the two more remarkable isthmuses in the world? 

Under Note 5. 

The Scriptures are more valuable than any writings. 

The Russian empire is more extensive than any govern- 
ment in the world. 

Israel loved Joseph more than all his children, because he 
was the son of his old age. 

Under Note 6. 

Of all other ill habits, idleness is the most incorrigible. 

Eve was the fairest of all her daughters. 

Hope is the most constant of all the other passions. 

Under Note 7. 

That opinion is too universal to be easily corrected. 
Virtue confers the supremest dignity upon man. 



syntax, 125 

The tongue is like a race-horse : the lesser weight it car- 
ries, the faster it runs. 

A more healthier place cannot be found. 

The best and the most wisest men often meet with discour- 
agements. 

Under Note 8. 

He showed us a more agreeable and easier way. 
This was the most convincing and plainest argument. 
Some of the most moderate and wisest of the senators. 
This is an honourable and ancient fraternity. 
There vice shall meet an irrevocable and fatal doom. 

Under Note 9. 

He is a young industrious man. 

She has a new elegant house. 

The two first classes have read. 

The oldest two sons have removed to the westward. 

England had not seen such an other king. 

Under Note 10. 

She reads well, and writes neat. 

He was extreme prodigal. 

They went, conformable to their engagement. 

He speaks very fluent, and reasons justly. 

The deepest streams run the most silent. 

These appear to be finished the neatest. 

He was scarce gone, when you arrived. 

I am exceeding sorry to hear of your misfortunes. 

The work was uncommon well executed. 

'This is not such a large cargo as the last. 

Thou knowst what a good horse mine is. 

I cannot think so mean of him. 

He acted much wiser than the others. 

Under Note 11. 

I bought them books at a very low price. 
Go aud tell them boys to be still. 
I have several copies: thou art welcome to them two. 
Which of them three men is the most useful. 
12 * 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Under Note 12. 

Hope is as strong an incentive to action, as fear : this is the 

anticipation of good, that of evil. 
The poor want some advantages which the rich enjoy ; 

but we should not therefore account those happy, and 

these miserable. 

Memory and forecast just returns engage, 
This pointing back to youth, that on to age. 

Under Note 13. 

Let each of them be heard in their turn. 

Are either of these men known ? - 

No : neither of them have any connexions here. 

Under Note 1 4. 

Bid either of the company stop to assist you 2 
Here are six; but neither of them will answer. 

RULE V. 

A Pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the 
noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, num- 
ber, and gender : as, " This is the friend of whom I 
spoke; he has just arrived.'* — "This is the book 
which I bought ; it is an excellent work." — "Ye, 
therefore, rvho love mercy, teach your sons lo love it 
too." 

Obs. 1. — The pronoun we is used by the speaker to represent 
himself and others,. and is therefore plural. But it is sometimes 
used, by a sort of fiction, instead of the singular, to intimate that 
the speaker is not alone in his opinions. Monarchs sometimes 
join it to a singular noun ; as, " We Alexander, Autocrat of all the 
Russias." They also employ the compound ourself. 

Obs. 2. — The pronoun you, though originally and properly plur- 
al, is now generally applied alike to one person or to more. [See 
Obs. 2, page 40.] This usage, however it may seem to involve a 
solecism, is established by that authority against which the mere 
grammarian has scarcely a right to remonstrate. We do not, how- 
ever, think it necessary or advisable, to encumber the conjuga- 
tions, as some have done, by introducing this pronoun and the cor- 
responding form of the verb, as singular. The moral objections 
which may lie against this, or any other application of words, do 
not come within the grammarian's province. 



SYNTAX, 127 

Obs. 3. — When a pronoun represents the name of an inanimate 
-object personified, it agrees with its antecedent in the figurative, 
and not in the literal sense ; as, 

. " Penance dreams her life away." — Rogers. 
"Grim Darkness furls his leaden shroud." — Idem. 
Obs. 4.— When the antecedent is applied metaphorically, the 
pronoun agrees with it in its literal, and not in its figurative sense; 
as, " Pitt was the pillar which upheld the state."—" The monarch 
of mountains rears his snowy head." 

Obs. 5. — When the antecedent is put by metonymy for a noun of 
different properties, the pronoun sometimes agrees with it in the 
figurative, and sometimes in the literal sense ; as, 
" The wolf, who [that] from the nightly fold, 

Fierce drags the bleating prey, ne'er drunk her milk, 
Nor wore her warming fleece." — Thomson. 
" That each may fill the circle mark'd by Heaven, 
Who sees with equal eye, as God of ail, 
A hero perish or a sparrow fall." — Pope. 
"And heaven beholds its Image in his breast." — Idem. 
Obs. 6.— When the antecedent is put by synecdoche for more or less 
than it literally signifies, the pronoun agrees with it in the figura- 
tive, and not in its literal sense ; as, 

" A dauntless soul erect, who smiled on death."— Thomson. 

" But to the generous still-improving mind, 

That gives the hopeless heart to sing for joy 

To him the long review of ordered life 
Is inward rapture only to be felt."— Idem. 

Obs. 7— Pronouns usually follow the words which they repre- 
sent; but this order is sometimes reversed: as," Whom the can fits 
let him put it on." ' 

Obs. 8.— A pronoun sometimes represents a phrase or sentence 
In this case, the pronoun is always in the third person, singular 
neuter ; as, " She is very handsome ; and she has the misfortune to 
know it." 

Obs. 9.— When a pronoun follows two words, having a neuter 
verb between them, and both referring to same thing, it may rep- 
resent either of them, but not with the same meaning- as 1 "I 
am the man who command ;" here, ivho command belongs to the 
subject /, and the meaning is, " I who command, am the man " 
1 he latter expression places the relative nearer to its antecedent 
and is therefore preferable. 2, " I am the man who commands •" 
here, who commands belongs to the predicate man, and the mean- 
ing is, " I am the commander." 

Obs. 10.— After the expletive it, which may be employed to in- 
troduce a noun or pronoun of any person, number, or ger.der the 
above mentioned distinction is generally disregarded : and the rel- 
ative is made to agree with the latter word ; as, " It is not I that do 
it. The propriety of this construction is questionable 

Obs. 11.— The pronoun it is often used without a definite refer- 
ence to any antecedent ; as, "Whether she grapple it with the pride oi 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

philosophy." — Chalmers. And still more frequently it refers lt> 
something mentioned in the subsequent part of the sentence. This 
pronoun is a necessary expletive at the commencement of sen- 
tence, in which the verb is followed by a clause which, by a trans- 
position, may be made the subject to the verb ; as, " It is impossi- 
ble to please every one" — It was requisite that the papers should be 
sent." 

Obs. 12. — In familiar language, the relative in the objective case, 
is frequently understood ; as, " Here is the letter [which] I receiv- 
ed." The omission of the relative in the nominative case, is inele- 
gant ; as, " This is the worst thing [that] could happen." The lat- 
ter ellipsis sometimes occurs in poetry ; as, 

" In this 'tis God directs." — Pope. 

Obs. 13.— In poetry, the antecedent is sometimes suppressed; aSj 

[He] " Who lives to nature, rarely can be poor." 

Obs. 14. — What is sometimes used adverbially; as, "Though I 
forbear, what am I eased ?" — Job, xvi. 6. " The enemy having his 
country wasted, what by himself and vjhat by the soldiers, findeth 
succour in no place. — Spenser. 

Obs. 15. — What is sometimes used as a mere interjection ; as, 

" What ! can you lull the winged winds asleep."^— Campbell. 

Obs. 16. — When no nominative comes between the relative and 
the verb which follows it, the relative is the nominative to the 
verb; as, " Thou who knowest all things." 

Obs. 17. — When there is a nominative between the relative and 
the verb, the relative is governed by some word in its own clause ; 
as, "The person to whom thoureferst, has left the city." 

Obs. 18. — When both the antecedent and the relative are nomi- 
natives, the relative agrees with the former verb, and the antece- 
dent with the latter; as, " He that is not virtuous, is not truly 
w r ise." 

Note I. — A. pronoun should not be introduced in con- 
nexion with words that belong more properly to the ante- 
cedent, or to an other pronoun ; as, 

" My banks they are furnish'd with bees."— Shenstone. 
They should be omitted. 

Note II. — A. change of number, in the second person, 
is inelegant and improper ; as, " You wept, and I for thee. 

Obs. — Poets have sometimes adopted this solecism, to avoid the 
harshness of the verb in the second person singular ; as, 

" As, in that lov'd Athenian bower, 

You learn 'd an all-commanding- power, 

Thy mimic soul, O nymph endear'd, 

Can well recall what then it heard."— Collins, 

Note III. — The relative who is applied only to per- 
son? and to animals personified ; and which^ to brute ani- 



SYNTAX. 1 29 

mals, and inanimate things : as," The judge who presided," 
— " The old crab who advised the you<ig cue," — " The 
horse which ran," — " The hook which was given me." 

Obs. — Which as well as who, was formerly applied to persons : 
as, " Our Father which art in heaven." It may still be applied to a 
young child ; as, " The child which died. 1 ' 

Note IV. — Nouns of multitude, unless they express 
persons directly as such, should not be represented by the 
relative who : to say, •* The family whom! visited," would 
hardly be proper; that would here be better. When such 
nouns are strictly of the neuter gender, which may repre- 
sent them ; as, " The committees which were appointed." 

Note V. — A name taken merely as a name, or in any 
other sense not strictly personal, must be represented by 
which, and not by who ; as, " Herod — which is but an oth- 
er name for cruelty." — " In every prescription of duty, 
God proposeth himself as a rewarder ; which he is only to 
those that please him." — Owen. 

Note VI. — The relative that may be applied either to 
persons or to things. In the following cases it is prefera- 
ble to who or which : I. After an adjective of the su- 
perlative degree; as, " He was the first that came." 2. 
After the adjective same ; as, " This is the same person 
that I met before." 3. After the antecedent who ; as, 
" Who that has common sense, can think so ?" 4. Alter 
a joint reference to persons and things ; as, " He spoke of 
the men and things that he had seen." 5. After an un- 
limited antecedent; as, u Thoughts that breathe, and 
words that burn." 6. After an antecedent introduced by 
the expletive it ; as, " It is you that command." It was I 
that did it." 7. And, in general, where the propriety of 
who or which is doubtful; as, " The little child that was 
placed in the midst." 

Note VII. — When several relative clauses follow one 
antecedent, and have a similar dependence, the same pro- 
noun must, be employed in each : as, " O thou who art,and 
who wast, and who art to come !" 

Note VIII.— The relative, and the preposition govern- 
ing it, should not be omitted, when they are necessary to 
give connexion to the sentence; as, " He is still in the sit- 
uation [in which] you saw him." 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note IX. — An adverb should not be used where a prep- 
osition and a relative pronoun would better express the 
relation of the terms ; as, " A cause where [for in which] 
justice is so much concerned." 

Note X. — Where a pronoun or a pronominal adjective 
will uot express the meaning clearly, the noun must be re- 
peated. In the following sentence the meaning is not clear- 
ly expressed : " We see the beautiful variety of colour in 
the rainbow, and are led to consider the cause of it" 
[that variety]. 

Note XI. — To prevent ambiguity or obscurity, the re- 
lative should be placed as near as possible to its antecedent. 
The following sentence is faulty : " He is like a beast of 
prey, that is void of compassion; " better, " He that is voir! 
of compassion, is like a beast of prey." 

Note XII. — The pronoun what should never be used 
instead of the conjunction that; as, " He will not believe 
but what I am to blame-" What should be that. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples under Ride 5. 

No person should be censured for being careful of their 
reputation. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun their is of the plural number, 
and does not correctly represent its antecedent noun person, which 
is singular. But, according to Rule 5th, " A pronoun must agree 
with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in 
person, number, and gender." Therefore, their should be his ; thus, 
No person should be censured for being careful of his reputation.] 

Every one must judge of their own feelings. 

Can any persou, on their entrance into the world, be fully 

secure, that they shall not be deceived ? 
He cannot see one in prosperity without envying them. 
I gave him oats, but he would not eat it. 
Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put them on Jacob. 
Take up the tongs, and put it iu its place. 
Let each esteem others better than themselves. 
A person may make themselves happy without riches. 
Every man should try to provide for themselves. 



SYNTAX. 131 

The mind of man should not be left without something on 
which to employ his energies. 

An idler is a watch that wants both hands, 
As useless if he goes, as when he stands. 

Under Note 1. 

Many words they darken speech. 

These praises he then seemed inclined to retract them. 

These people they are all very ignorant. 

Asa his heart was perfect with the Lord. 

Who in stead of going about doing good, they are perpetu- 
ally doing mischief. 

Whom ye delivered up, and denied him in the presence of 
Pontius Pilate. 

Whom when they had washed, they laid her in an upper 
chamber. 

What I have mentioned, there are witnesses of the fact. 

What he said, he is now sorry for it. 

The empress, approving these conditions, she immediately 
ratified them. 

This incident, though it appears improbable, yet I cannot 
doubt the author's veracity. 

Under Note 2. 

Thou art my father's brother; else would I reprove you. 
Your weakness is excusable, but thy wickedness is not. 
Now, my son, 1 forgive thee, and freely pardon your fault. 

You draw the inspiring breath of ancient song, 
Till nobly rises emulous thy own. 

Under Note 3. 

This is the horse whom my father imported. 

Those are the birds whom we call gregarious. 

He has two brothers, one of which I am acquainted with, 

What was that creature whom Job called leviathan ? 

Those which desire to be safe, should be careful to do that 
which is right. 

A Butterfly, which thought himself an accomplished trav- 
eller, happened to light upon a bee-hive. 

There was a certain householder which planted a vineyard. 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Under Note 4. 

He instructed and fed the crowds who surrounded him. 

The court, who has great influence upon the public man- 
ners, ought to be very exemplary. 

The wild tribes who inhabit the wilderness, contemplate 
the ocean with astonishment, and gaze upon the starry 
heavens with delight. 

Under Note 5. 

Judas,(who is now an other name for treachery,) betrayed 

his master with a kiss. 
He alluded to Phalaris, — who is a name for all that is cruel. 

Under Note 6. 

He was the first who entered. 

He was the drollest fellow whom I ever saw. 

This is the same man whom we saw before. 

Who is she who comes clothed in a robe of green ? 

The wife and fortune whom he gained, did not aid him. 

Men who are avaricious, never have enough. 

All which I have, is thine. 

Was it thou, or the wind, who shut the door ? 

It was not I who shut it. 

The babe who was in the cradle, appeared to be healthy. 

Under Note 7. 

He is a man that knows what belongs to good manners, and 

who will not do a dishonourable act. 
The friend who was here, and that entertained us so much, 

will never be able to visit us again. 
The curiosities which he has brought home, and that we 

shall have the pleasure of seeing, are said to be very rare. 

Under Note 8. 

Observe them in the order they stand. 
We proceeded immediately to the place we were directed. 
My companion remained a week ia the state I left him. 
The way I do it, is this. 



SYNTAX. 133 

Under Note 9. 

Kemember the condition whence thou art rescued. 

I know of no rule how it may be done. 

He drew up a petition, where he too freely represented his 

own merits. 
The hour is hastening, when whatever praise or censure I 
have acquired, will be remembered with equal indifference. 

Under Note 10. 

Many will acknowledge the excellence of religion, who can- 
not tell wherein it consists. 

Every difference of opinion is not that of principle. 

Next to the knowledge of God, this of ourselves seems most 
worthy of our endeavour. 

Under Note 11. 

Thou art thyself the man that committed the act, who hast 

thus condemned it. 
There is a certain majesty in simplicity which is far above 

the quaintness of wit. 
Thou hast no right to judge who art a party concerned. 
It is impossible for such men as those, ever to determine this 

question, who are likely to receive the appointment. 
There are millions of people in the empire of China, whose 

support is derived almost entirely from ric#. 

Under Note 12. 

I had no idea but what the story was true. 

The post boy is not so weary but what he can whistle. 

He had no intimation but what the men were honest, 

RULE VI. 

When the antecedent is a collective noun convey- 
ing the idea of plurality, the Pronoun must agree 
with it, in the plural number : as, " The council were 
divided in their sentiments." 

Note I.— A collective noun conveying the idea of unity, 
J. «j 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

requires a pronoun in the third person, singular, neuter; as, 
" The nation will enforce its laws." 

Obs. — Most collective nouns of the neuter gender, may take 
the regularplural form, and be represented by a pronoun in the third 
person, plural, neuter; as, " The nations will enforce their laws." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Examples under Rule 6. 

The jury will be confined till it agrees on a verdict. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun it is of the singular number, 
and does not correctly represent its antecedent jury, which is a 
collective noun conveying the idea of plurality. But, according 
to Rule 6th, " When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying 
the idea of plurality, the pronoun must agree with it, in the plural 
number." Therefore it should be they; thus, The jury will be con- 
fined till they agree on a verdict.] 

In youth, the multitude eagerly pursue pleasure, as if it 
were its chief good. 

The council were not unanimous, and it separated with- 
out coming to any determination. 

The committee were divided in sentiment, and it referred 
the business to the general meeting. 

There happened to the army a very strange accident, 
which put it in great consternation. 

The enemy were not able to support the charge, and he 
dispersed and fled. 

The defendant's counsel had a difficult task imposed on it. 

The board of health publish its proceedings. 

I saw all the species thus delivered from its sorrows. 

Under Note 1. 

I saw the whole species thus delivered from their sorrows. 
This court is famous for the justice of their decisions. 
The convention then resolved themselves into a committee 

of the whole. 
The crowd was so great that the judges with difficulty 

made their way through them. 



SYNTAX. 135 

RULE VII. 

When a Pronoun has two or more antecedents connected 
by and, it must agree with them in the plural number : as, 
"James and John will favour us with their company." 

Obs. 1. — When the antecedents are of different persons, the first 
person is preferred to the second, and the second, to the third : as, 
" John, and thou, and I, are attached to our country." — " John and 
thou are attached to your country." 

Obs. 2. — The gender of pronouns, except in the third person sin- 
gular, is distinguished only by their antecedents. In expressing 
that of a pronoun which has antecedents of different genders, the 
masculine should be preferred to the feminine, and the feminine to 
the neuter. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples under Rule 7. 

Discontent and sorrow manifested itself in his countenance.. 

[Not proper, because tire pronoun itself is of the singular num- 
ber, and does not correctly represent its two antecedents, discon- 
tent and sorrow, which are connected by and, and taken conjointly. 

But, according to Rule 7th, " When a pronoun has two or more 
antecedents connected by and, it must agree w r ith them in the plu- 
ral number." Therefore, itself should be themselves; thus, Discon- 
tent and sorrow manifested themselves in his countenance.] 

Your levity and heedlessness, if it continue, will prevent 
all substantial improvement. 

Poverty and obscurity will oppress him only who esteems 
it oppressive. 

Good sense and refined policy are obvious to few, because 
it cannot be discovered but by a train of reflection. 

Avoid haughtiness of behaviour, and affectation of man- 
ners : it implies a want of solid merit. 

If love and unity continue, it will make you partakers of 
one an other's joy. 

Suffer not jealousy and distrust to enter : it will destroy, 
like a canker, every germ of friendship. 

Hatred and animosity are inconsistent with Christian char- 
ity : guard, therefore, against the slightest indulgence of it. 

Every man is entitled to liberty of conscience, and freedom 
of opinion, if be does uot pervert it to the injury of others. 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

RULE VIII. 

When a Pronoun has two or more singular antecedents 
coDoected by or or nor, it must agree with them in the 
singular number : as, " Janus or John will favour us with 
his company." 

Obs. — When antecedents of different persons, numbers, or gen- 
ders, are connected by or or nor, they cannot be represented by a 
pronoun that is not applicable to each of them. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples under Rule 8. 

Neither wealth nor honour can secure the happiness of 
their votaries. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun their is of the plural number, 
and does not correctly represent its two antecedents wealth and 
honour, which are connected by nor, and taken disjunctively. But. 
according to Rule 8th, " When a pronoun has two or more singu- 
lar antecedents connected by or or nor,it must agree with them in 
the singular number." Therefor©, their should be i«;thus, Neither 
wealth nor honour can secure the happiness of its votaries.] 

Neither Sarah, Ann, nor Jane, has performed their task. 

One or the other must relinquish their claim. 

A man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which 

will move only as they are moved. 
Rye or barley, when they are scorched, may supply the 

place of coffee. 
A man may see a metaphor or an allegory in a picture, 

as well as read them in a description. 
Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any condition 

of life; for they may be thy own lot. 

RULE IX. 

A Verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, 
in person and number: as, "I know ; thou knowst, 
or know est ; he knows, ov know eth." — "The bird 
Jiies; the birds.%." 

Note I. — The adjuncts of the nominative, do not control 
its agreement with the verb; as, " Six months' interest was 



SYNTAX. 



137 



due.'*— " The 'propriety of these rules is evident."—" The 
mill with all its appertenances, was destroyed" 

Not?. II.— The infinitive mood, a phrase, or a sentence, 
is sometimes 'ae subject to a verb: a subject cf this <'nd, 
however composed, if " *s taken as one whole, requires a 
verb in tlie third person, singular; as, " To lie is base." 
— " To see the sun is pleasant." — " That you have violated 
the law, is evident." — <" For what purpose they embarked, 
is not yet known." 

Obs. 1.— The same meaning will be expressed, if the pronoun it 
be placed before the verb, and the infinitive or the phrase, after it ; 
as, "THsbase to lie" — "It is evident that you have violated the 
law." The construction of the following sentences is rendered 
defective by the omission of the pronoun : " Why do ye that 
which [it] is not lawful to do on the sabbath days ?"^-" The shew- 
bread, which [if] is not lawful to eat, but for the priests only." — 
New Testament. 

Obs. 2.— The infinitive in this construction, is sometimes fol- 
lowed by an adjective, denoting a quality or state considered 
abstractly ; as, " To be good is to be happy." Here good and happy 
express the quality of goodness and the state of happiness, con- 
sidered abstractly ; and therefore they do not relate to any partic- 
ular noun. The passive infinitive may have a similar import ; as, 
" To be satisfied with a little, is the greatest wisdom." Here the 
satisfaction is considered abstractly. 

Obs. 3. — When the action or state is to be limited to a particu- 
lar person or thing, the noun or pronoun may be introduced 
before the infinitive, by the preposition for ; as, " For a prince to 
be reduced by villany to my distressful circumstances, is calamity 
enough." — TV. Sallust." 

Note III. — A neuter verb between two nominatives 
should be made to agree with that which precedes it ; as, 
" Words are wind :" except when the terms are rhetori- 
cally transposed, and the proper subject is put after the 
verb; as, "His pavilion mere dark maters and thick 
clouds."—" Who art thou ?" 

Note IV. — When the verb has different forms, that 
form should be adopted, which is the most consistent with 
present and reputable usage, in the style employed ; thus, 
to say familiarly, "The clock hath' stricken" — "Thou 
laughedst and talkedst, when thou oughtest to have been 
silent," — "He readeth and writeth, but he doth not cipher," 
— would be no better, than to use don't, won't, can't, 
shtfrtt, and didn't, in preaching. 

13 * 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note V.— The nominative to a verb in the imperative 
mood, is generally omitted ; as, " Guide [thou] my lonely 
way." With the verb in all the other personal tenses, the 
nominative must be expressed : except where two or more 
verbs are connected in the same construction ; as, 

** They bud, blow, wither, fall, and die." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Examples under Rule 9. 

You was kindly received. 

[Not proper, because the verb was received, is of the singular 
number, and does not agree with its nominative you, which is plu- 
ral. But, according to Rule 9th, " A verb must agree with its sub- 
ject, or nominative, in person and number." Therefore, was re- 
ceived should be were received ; thus, You were kindly received.] . 

We was disappointed. 

She dare not oppose it. 

His pulse are too quick. 

Circumstances alters cases. 

He need not trouble himself. 

Twenty- four pence is two shillings. 

On one side was beautiful meadows. 

He may pursue what studies he please. 

What have become of our cousins ? 

There was more impostors than one. 

What says his friends on this subject ? 

Thou knows the urgency of the case. 

What avails good sentiments with a bad life ? 

Has those books been sent to the school ? 

There is many occasions for the exercise of patience. 

What sounds have each of the vowels ? 

There were a great number of spectators. 

There are an abundance of treatises on this easy science. 

While ever and anon, there falls 
Huge heaps of hoary moulder'd walls. 

He that trust in the Lord, will never be without a friend. 
Errors that originates in ignorance,is generally excusable. 
Be ye not as the horse, or as the mule, which have no un- 
derstanding. 



SYNTAX. 139 

Not one of the authors who mentions this incident, is entitled 
to credit. 

The man and woman that was present, being strangers to 
him, wondered at his conduct. 

There necessarily follows from thence, these plain and un- 
questionable consequences. 

O thou, forever present in my way, 
Who all my motives and my toils survey, 

Under Note 1. 

The derivation of these words are uncertain. 

Four years' interest were demanded. 

One, added to nineteen, make twenty. 

The increase of orphans render the addition necessary. 

The road to virtue and happiness, are open to all. 

The ship with all her crew, were lost. 

Nothing but vain and foolish pursuits, delight some folks. 

Under Note 2. 

To obtain the praise of men, were their only object. 

To steal and then deny it, are a double sin. 

To copy and claim the writings of others, are plagiarism. 

To live soberly, righteously, and piously, are required of 

all men. 
That it is our duty to promote peace and harmony among 

men, admit of no dispute. 

Under Note 3. 

The reproofs of instruction is the way of life. 
A diphthong are two vowels joined in one syllable. 
So great an affliction to him was his wicked sons. 
What is the latitude and longitude of that island ? 

Under Note 4. 

1. Familiar Style, 

Was it thou that buildedst that house ? 

That boy writeth very elegantly. 

Could est not thou write, without blotting thy book ? 

Thinkest thou not it will rain to-day ? 

Doth not your cousin intend to visit you? 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

That boy hath torn my book. 

Was it thou that spreadest the hay ? 

Was it James, or thou, that didst let him in ? 

He dareth not say a word. 

Thou stoodest in my way, and hiuderedst me. 

2, Solemn Style. 

The Lord has prepar'd his throne in the heavens ; and his 

kingdom rules over all. 
Thou answer'd thern, O Lord our God : thou was a God 

that forgave them, though thou took vengeance of their 

inventions. 
Then thou spoke in vision to thy Holy One, and said — 
So then, it is not of him that wills, nor of him that runs, but 

of God that shows mercy. 

Under Note 5. 

Dear friend, Am. sorry to hear of thy loss; but hope it 
may be retrieved. Should be happy to render thee any 
assistance in my power. Shall call to see thee to-mor- 
row morning. Accept assurances of my regard, 

I have just received a fresh supply of goods ; and are of 
the first quality. 

Will martial flames forever fire thy mind, 
And never, never be to Heaven resign'd ? 

RULE X. 

When the nominative is a collective noun convey- 
ing the idea of plurality, the Verb must agree with 
it in the plural number: as, ,{ The council were di- 
vided." 

Note I.— A collective noun conveying the idea of unity, 
requires a verb in the third person, singular ; and gener- 
ally admits also the regular plural construction: as," His 
army was defeated."— "His armies were defeated." 



SYNTAX. 141 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Examples under Rule 10. 

The people rejoices in that which should cause sorrow. 

[Not proper, because the verb rejoices is of the singular number, 
and does not correctly agree with its nominative people, which is a 
collective noun conveying the idea of plurality. But,accordingto 
Rule 10th, " When the nominative is a collective noun conveying 
the idea of plurality, the verb must agree with it in the plural num- 
ber." Therefore, rejoices should be rejoice ; thus, The people rejoice 
in that which should cause sorrow."] 

The nobility was assured that he would not interpose. 
The committee has attended to their appointment. 
Mankind was not, at that time, united by the bonds of civil 

society. 
The majority was disposed to adopt the measure. 
The peasantry goes barefoot, and the middle sort makes 

use of wooden shoes. 
All the world is spectators of your conduct. 
Blessed is the people that know the joyful sound. 

Under Note 1. 

The church have no power to inflict corporal punishments, 
The fleet were seen sailing up the channel. 
The meeting have established several salutary regulations. 
The regiment consist of a thousand men. 
A detachment of two hundred men were immediately sent. 
Every auditory take this in good part. 
In this business, the house of commous were of no weight. 
Are the senate considered as a separate body ? 
There are a flock of birds. 

No society are chargeable with the disapproved conduct of 
particular members. 

RULE XL 

When a Verb has two or more nominatives con- 
nected by and, it must agree with them in the plural 
number : as, 

" Judges and senates have been bought for gold ; 
Esteem and love were never to be sold." — Pope* 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Obs. 1.— The conjunction is sometimes understood; as, 
" Art, empire, earth itself, to change are doom'd." — Beattie. 

Obs. 2. — When the nouns connected are descriptive of one and 
the same object, they are in apposition, and do not require a plural 
verb ; as, ". This philosopher and poet was banished from his coun- 
try." 

Obs. 3. — -When the same nominative is repeated, the words are 
in apposition, and do not require a plural verb ; as, 

" Love, and love only, is the loan for love." — Young. 

Obs. 4. — When the verb separates its nominatives, it agrees with 
that which precedes it, and is understood to the rest ; as, 



Forth in the pleasing spring, 



Thy beauty walks, thy tenderness, and love." — Thomson. 

Obs. 5. — In Greek and Latin, the verb frequently agrees with 
the nearest nominative, and is understood to the rest; and 
this construction is sometimes improperly imitated in English : as, 
Navi Je MENEI 7riG-Ti$, IhTTiq, «y«5Tj}, ru rg)ot tocvtoc. — 
Nunc vero manet fides, spes, charitas ; tria hasc. — Now abideth 
faith, hope, charity ; these three.— 1 Cor. xiii. 13. 

Note I. — When two subjects are connected,one of which 
is taken affirmatively, and the other negatively, they be- 
long to different propositions ; and the verb or pronoun 
must agree with the affirmative subject, and be understood 
to the other : as, " Diligent industry, and not mean savings, 
produces honourable competence." So also when subjects 
are connected by as well as, but, or save ; as, " Cassar, as 
well as Cicero, was admired for /us eloquence." — -"Noth- 
ing but waitings was heard." — '- None but thou can aid 
us.—" No mortal man, save he, had e'er survived" — Scott, 

Obs. — Some grammarians say that but and save, when they de- 
note exception, should govern the objective case, as prepositions: 
but this is not according to the usage of the best authors. Save, as a 
conjunction, is nearly obsolete. In Rev. ii. 17, we read, " Which 
no man knoweth, saving he that receiveth it." 

Note II.— When the subjects are severally preceded 
by the adjective each, every, or no, they are taken separ- 
ately, and require a verb and pronoun in the singular num- 
ber ; as, 

" And every sense, and every heart is joy."— Thorn. 
" Each beast, each insect, happy in its own" — Pope* 

Note III. — When words are to be taken conjointly, as 
subjects or antecedents, the conjunction and must connect 
them. 



SYNTAX. 143 

Obs.— In Latin, cum with an ablative, sometimes has the force of 
the conjunction et with a nominative ; as, " Dux cum aliquot prin- 
cipibus capiuntur." — Livy. In imitation of this construction, some 
English writers have substituted with for and, and varied the verb 
accordingly; as, " A long course of time, with a variety of accidents 
and circumstances, are requisite to produce these revolutions." — 
Hume. But, as the preposition makes its object only an adjunct of 
the preceding noun, this construction cannot be justified. 

Note IV.— -Two or more distinct subject phrases con- 
nected by and, require a plural verb; as, "To be wise in 
our own eyes, to be wise in the opinion of the world, and to 
be wise in the sight of our Creator ,are three things so very 
different as rarely to coincide." — Blair. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples under Rule 1 1 . 

Industry and frugality leads to wealth. 

[Not proper, because the verb leads is of the singular number and 
does not correctly agree with its two nominatives, industry and 
frugality, which are connected by and, and taken conjointly. 
But, according to Rule 11th, " When a verb has two or more nomi- 
natives connected by and, it must agree with them in the plural 
number." Therefore, leads should be lead ; thus,Industry and fru- 
gality lead to wealth.] 

Temperance and exercise preserves health. 

Time and tide waits for uo man. 

My love and affection towards thee, remains unaltered. 

Wealth, honour, and happiness, forsakes the indolent. 

My flesh and my heart faileth. 

In all his works, there is sprightliness and vigour. 

Elizabeth's meekness and humility was extraordinary. 

In unity consists the security and welfare of every society. 

High pleasures and luxurious living begets satiety. 

Much does human pride and folly require correction. 

Our conversation and intercourse with the world, is, in 

several respects, an education for vice. 
Occasional release from toil, and indulgence of ease, is what 

nature demands, and virtue allows. 
What geuerosity, and what humanity, was then displayed ! 

What thou desir'st, 

And what thou fearst, alike destroys all hope. 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Under Note 1. 

Wisdom, and Dot wealth, procure esteem. 

Prudence, and not pomp, are the basis of his fame. 

Not fear, but labour have overcome him. 

His constitution, as well as his fortune, require care. 

Their religion, as well as their manners, were ridiculed^ 

The decency, and not the abstinence, make the difference. 

The buyer, as well as the seller, render themselves liable. 

Not her beauty, but her talents attracts attention. 

It is her talents, and not her beauty, that attracts attention. 

It is her beauty, and not her talents, that attract attention. 

Under Note 2. 

Each day, and each hour, bring their portion of duty. 
Every house, and even every cottage, were plundered. 
Every thought, every word, and every action, will be 

brought into judgement, whether they be good or evil. 
The time will come, when no oppressor, no unjust man, will 

be able to screen themselves from punishment. 

No bandit fierce, no tyrant mad with pride, 
No cavern'd hermit, rest self-satisfied. 

Under Note 3. 

In this affair, perseverance with dexterity were requisite. 
Town or country are equally agreeable to me. 
Sobriety with humility lead to honour. 
The king, with the lords, and the commons, compose the 

British parliament. 
The man with his whole family are dead. 
A small house, in addition to a trifling annuity, are still 



granted him. 



Under Note 4. 



To profess, and to possess, is very different things. 

To do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly with 

God, is duties of universal obligation. 
To be round or square, to be solid or fluid, to be large or 

Small, and to be moved swiftly or slowly, is all equally 

alien from the nature of thought. 



SYNTAX. 



145 



RULE XII. 

When a Verb has two or more singular nomina- 
tives connected by or or nor, it must agree with 
them in (he singular number : as, "Fear or jealousy 
affects him." 

Obs. — In the learned languages, a plural verb is often employed 
with nominatives thus connected ; as, 

" Tunc nee mens mihi, nee color 
Certa sede manent." — Horace. 
And the best scholars have sometimes improperly imitated this 
construction in English ; as, 

" He comes — nor want nor cold his course delay : 
Hide, blushing Glory ! hide Pultowa's day." — Johnson. 

Note I. — When a verb has nominatives of different per- 
sons or numbers, connected by or or nor, it must agree with 
that which is placed next to it, and be understood to the rest, 
in the person and number required ; as, " Neither he nor his 
brothers were there." — " Neither you nor I am concerned." 

Note If. — But when the nomiuatives require different 
forms of the verb, it is, in general, more elegant to express 
the verb, or its auxiliary, in connexion with each of them; as, 
" Either thou art to blame, or I am." — " Neither were their 
numbers, nor was their destination, known." 

Note III. — The speaker should generally mention him- 
self last; as, " Thou or I must go." — " He then addressed 
his discourse to my father and me." 

Note IV.' — Two or more distinct subject phrases con- 
nected by or or nor, require a singular verb ; as, " That 
a drunkard should be poor, or that a fop should be igno- 
rant, is not strange." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Examples under Rule 12. 

Ignorance or negligence have caused this mistake. 

[JMot proper, because the verb have caused is of the plural num- 
ber, and does not correctly agree with its two nominatives, igno- 
rance and negligence, which are connected by or, and taken dis- 
junctively. But, according. to Rule 12th, " When a verb has two 
or more singular nominatives connected by or or nor, it must 
agree with them in the singular number." Therefore have caused 
should be has caused ; thus r Ignorance or negligence has cav^ed 
this mistake] 

14 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Neither imprudence, credulity, nor vanity, have ever bees 

imputed to him. 
What the heart or the imagination dictate, flows readily. 
Neither authority nor analogy support thy opinion. 
Either ability or inclination were wanting. 
Redundant grass or heath afford abundance to their cattle. 
The returns of kindness are sweet ; and there are neither 

honour, nor virtue, nor utility, in repelling them. 
The sense or drift of a proposition, often depend upon a 

single letter. 

Under Note 1. 

Neither he nor you was there. 
Either the boys or I were in fault. 
Neither he nor I intends to be present. 
Neither the captain nor the sailors was saved. 
Whether one person or more was concerned in the busi- 
ness, does not yet appear. 

Under Note 2. 

Are they, or I, expected to be there ? 

Neither he, nor am I, capable of it. 

Either he has been imprudent, or his associates vindictive 

Neither were their riches, nor their influence, great. 

Under Note 3. 

I and my father were riding out. 

The premiums were given to me and George. 

I and Jane are invited. 

They ought to invite me and my sister. 

We dreamed a dream in one night, I and he. 

Under Note 4. 

To practice tale-bearing, or even to countenance it, are 
great injustice. 

To reveal secrets, or to betray one's friends, are con- 
temptible perfidy. 

RULE XIII. 

When Verbs are connected by a conjunction, they 
must either agree in mood, tense, and form, or have 



SYNTAX. 147 

separate nominatives expressed : as, " He himself 
held the plough, sowed the grain, and attended the 
reapers." " She was proud, but she is now humble*" 

Obs. 1. — From this rule there are many exceptions. We may. 
without repeating the nominative, connect the cognate tenses of 
the indicative mood; the corresponding tenses of the indicative 
and the potential mood ; the affirmative and the negative form ; 
or the simple and the compound form. But the simple verb must, 
in general, be placed first; and the nominative is understood be- 
fore the latter verb : as, 

" What nothing earthly gives, or can destroy/'' — Pope. 

11 Some are, and must be greater than the rest."-^-/e?ewr. 

<; Plays round the head, but comes not to the heart." — Idem. 

" I therein do rejoice; yea, and will rejoice," — Phil. i. 18. 

Obs. 2. — Those parts which are common to several verbs, are 
generally expressed to the first, and understood to the rest: as, 
" Every sincere endeavour to amend shall be assisted, [shall be} 
accepted, and [shall be] rewarded." — " Honourably do the best you 
can" [do]. — " He thought as I did" [think].— "You have seen it, 
but I have not" [seen if]. — " If you will go, I will" [go]. 

Note I. — The preterit should not be employed to form 
the compound tenses, nor should the perfect participle be 
used for the preterit. Thus: say, " To have gone,"'— not, 
" To have went;* and, " I did it,"— not, " I done it." 

Note II. — Several verbs that resemble each other in 
f.orm, are frequently confounded; and some others are of- 
ten misapplied. Care should be taken, to give every 
word its appropriate form and signification. Thus : say, 
<c He lay by the fire,"— not, " He laid by the fire."—" He 
had entered into the connexion," — uot, *' He was entered 
into the connexion." 

"FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples under Rule 13. 

They would neither go in themselves, nor suffered oth- 
ers to enter. 

[Not proper, because the word suffered, which is in the indica- 
tive mood, is connected without repetition of the nominative, to 
would go, which is in the potential mood. But, according to Rule 
13th, "When verbs are connected by a conjunction, they must 
either agree in mood, tense, and form, or have separate nomina- 
tives expressed." Therefore suffered should be would suffer; 
(would understood ;) thus,They would neither go in themselves, nor 
■suffer others to enter.] 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Doth he not leave the ninety and nine, and goeth into the 
wilderness to seek that which is lost? 

Did he not tell thee his fault, and entreated thee to forgive 
him? 

If he understands the business, and attend to it, he cannot 
fail of success. 

The day is approaching, and hastens upon us, in which 
we must give an account of our stewardship. 

If thou dost not turn unto the Lord, but forget him who 
rembered thee in thy distress, great will be thy condem- 
nation. 

There are a few who have kept their integrity to the Lord, 
and prefer his truth to all other enjoyments. 

This report was current yesterday, and agrees with what 
we heard before. 

Virtue is generally praised, and would be generally prac- 
tised also, if men were wise. 

Under Note 1. 

He would have went with us, if we had invited him. 
They have chose the part of honour and virtue. 
He soon begun to be weary of having nothing to do. 
Somebody has broke my slate. 
I seen him, when he done it. 

Under Note 2. 

He was entered into the conspiracy. 
The American planters grow cotton and rice. 
The report is predicated on truth. 
I entered the room and set down. 
Go and lay down my son. 

With such books, it will always be difficult to learn chil- 
dren to read. 

RULE XIV. 

Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or are gov- 
erned by prepositions : as, " Elizabeth's tutor, atone 
time paying her a visit, found her employed in read- 
ing: Plato."— Hume. 



SYNTAX. 149 

Obs. — The word to which the participle relates, is sometimes 
understood ; as, " -J ranting this to be true ; what is to be inferred 
from it ?" that is, u I, granting this to be true, ask,wha.t is to be in- 
ferred from it?" — " The very chin was, [/.] modestly speaking, 
[say,] as loug as my whole face." — Addison. 

No'iji I. — Participles have the same government as the 
verbs from which ttiey are derived. The preposition of 
therefore, should not be used after the participle, when the 
verb does not require it. Thus, in phrases like the follow- 
ing,^ is improper : "Keeping of one day in seven," — "By 
preaching of repentance," — " They left beating of Paul." 

Obs. — When participles are compounded with something that 
does not belong to the verb, they become adjectives ; and, as such, 
they cannot govern an object after them. The following sentence 
is therefore inaccurate : " When Caius did any thing unbecoming 
his dignity." — Jones's Church History. 

Kote II. — An imperfect or a compound participle,pre- 
ceded by an article, an adjective, or a noun or pronoun of 
the possessive case, becomes a verbal noun ; and, as such, 
it cannot govern an object after it. A word which may be 
the object of the participle in its proper construction, re- 
quires the preposition of to connect it with the verbal noun: 
as, 1. (By the participle,) " By exercising the body,health 
is promoted." 2. (By the verbal noun,) "By the exercising 
of the body, health is promoted." — Again : 1. (By the par- 
ticiple,) " Much depends on observing this rule." 2. 
(By the verbal noun,) " Much depends on their observing 
of this rule." 

Obs. 1. — When the use of the preposition produces ambiguity or 
harshness, the expression must be varied. Thus, the sentence, 
'• He mentions Newton's writing of a commentary," is both am- 
biguous and awkward. If the preposition be omitted, the word 
writing will have a double construction, which is inadmissible. 
Some would say, " He mentions Newton writing a commentary." 
This is still worse. The meaning may be correctly expressed,thus: 
li He mentions that Neivton wrote a commentary." — " By his study- 
ing the Scriptures, he became wise." Here his serves only to render 
the sentence incorrect. 

Obs. 2. — We sometimes find a participle that takes the same 
case after as before it, converted into a verbal noun, and the latter 
word retained unchanged in connexion with it ; as, " I have some 
recollection of his father's being a judge." — " To prevent its being 
a dry detail of terms." — Back. The noun after the verbal, is in ap- 
position with the possessive going before. Nouns that are in ap- 
position with the possessive case, do not require the possessive 
sign. But the above-mentioned construction is anomalous, and 
perhaps it would be better to avoid it. 

14 * 



350 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Obs. 3. — The verbal noun should not be accompanied by any 
adjuncts of the verb or participle, unless they be taken into com- 
position; as, "The hypocrite's hope is like the giving-up of the 
ghost." The following phrase is therefore inaccurate: " For the 
more easily reading of large numbers." Yet, if we say, " For read- 
ing large numbers the more easily" the construction is different, 
and not inaccurate. 

Note III. — Participles that have become nouns, may 
be used as such, with or without the article. But we 
sometimes find those which retain the government and the 
adjuncts of participles, used as nouns before or after verbs; 
as, " Exciting such disturbances, is unlawful." — " Rebel- 
lion is rising against government." This mungrel con- 
struction is liable to ambiguity, and ought to be avoided. 
The infinitive mood, the verbal or some other noun, or a 
clause introduced by the conjunction that, will geuerally 
express the idea in a better manner; as, " To excite such 
disturbances," or, u The exciting of such disturbances," &c, 

Obs. — After verbs signifying to persevere, or to desist, the parti- 
ciple in ing, relating to the nominative, may be used instead of the 
infinitive connected to the verb; as, " So when they continued 
asking him." — John, viii. 7. Here, continued is intransitive, and 
asking relates to they. Greek, '^S ^ Itt/^vav egaruvres uvrov. 
But in sentences like the following, the participle seems to be im- 
properly made the object of the verb : " I intend doing it." — " I 
remember meeting him." — Better, "I intend to do it." — "I re- 
member to have met him." 

Note IV. — A participle construed after the nominative 
or the objective case, is not equivalent to a verbal noun 
governing the possessive. There is sometimes a nice dis- 
tinction to be observed in the application of these two con- 
structions. For the leading word in sense, should not be 
made the adjunct in construction. The following sentences 
exhibit a disregard to this principle, and are both inaccu- 
rate : " He felt his strength's declining." — " He was sen- 
sensible of his strength declining." In the former sentence 
the noun strength should be in the objective case, gov- 
erned by felt; and in the latter, in the possessive, govern- 
ed by declining. 

Note V. — Participles should not be used, even after 
a preposition, without a clear reference to the proper sub- 
ject of the being, action, or passion. The following sen- 
tence is therefore faulty : " By giving way to sin. trouble 
is encountered." — It should be, "By giving way to sin, 
we encounter trouble." 



SYNTAX. 151 

Note VI. — The preterit of irregular verbs is sometimes 
improperly used tor the perfect participle; as, " A. certif- 
icate wrote on parchment," — for, " A certificate written 
on parchment." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Examples under Note 1 . 

In forming of his sentences, he was very exact. 

[Not proper, because the preposition of is used after the parti* 
ciple forming, whose verb does not require it. But according to 
JVote 1st under Rule 14th, " Participles have the same government 
as the verbs from which they are derived. The preposition of 
therefore, should not be used after the participle, when the verb 
does not require it." Therefore, of should be omitted; thus, In 
forming his sentences, he was very exact.] 

By observing of truth you will command respect. 

I could not, for my heart, forbear pitying of him. 

I heard them discussing of this subject. 

By consulting of the best authors, he became learned. 

Here are rules, by observing of which, you may avoid error. 

Under Note 2. 

Their consent was necessary for the raising any supplies. 
Thus the saving a great nation devolved on a husbandman. 
It is an overvaluing ourselves, to decide upon every thing. 
The teacher does not allow any calling ill uames. 
That burning the capitol was a wanton outrage. 
May nothing hinder our receiving so great a good. 
My admitting the Fact will not affect the argument. 
Cain's killing his brother originated in envy. 

Under Note 3. 

Caesar carried off the treasures, which his opponent had 

neglected taking with him. 
It is dangerous playing with edge tools. 
I intend returning in a few days. 
Suffering needlessly is uever a duty. 
Nor is it wise complaining. 
I well remember telling you so. 
Doing good is a Christian's vocation. 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

Piety is constantly endeavouring to live to God. It is 
earnestly desiring to do his will, and not our own. 

Under Note 4. 

There is no harm in women knowing about these things. 
They did not give notice of the pupH leaving. 
The sun's darting his beams through my window, awoke me. 
The maturity of the sago tree is known by the leaves be- 
ing covered with a delicate white powder. 

Under Note 5. 

Sailing up the river, the whole town may be seen. 

Being conscious of guilt, death becomes terrible. 

By yieidiog to temptation, our peace is sacrificed. 

In loving our enemies no man's blood is shed. 

By teaching the young, they are prepared for usefulness. 

Under Note 6. 

A nail well drove will support a great weight* 
See here a hundred sentences, stole from my work. 
I found the water entirely froze, and the pitcher broke. 
Being forsook by my friends. I had no other resourcec 

RULE XV. 

Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or 
other adverbs : as, " Any passion thai habitually dis- 
composes our temper, or unfits us for properly dis- 
charging the duties of life, has most certainly gained 
a very dangerous ascendency. " 

Obs. 1. — Adverbs sometimes relate to verbs understood; as, 
* l The former has written correctly ; but the latter, elegantly" — 
** And [I say] truly, if they had been mindful of that country from 
whence they came out, they might have had opportunity to have 
returned." — Heb. xi. 15. And in this manner, perhaps, should 
sentences like the following be explained: 

" Say first, of God [who is] above, or man [who is] below, 
£From] what can we reason } but from what we know ?" — Pope. 

Obs. 2. — To abbreviate expressions, and give them vivacity, 
verbs of motion (as go, come, rise, get, &c.) are sometimes suppress- 



SYNTAX. 153 

ed, being suggested to the mind by an emphatic adverb ; as, 
u Til hence to London on a serious matter." — Shakespeare. 
u I'll in. I'll in. Follow your friend's counsel. I'll in." — Idem. 
" Away, old man ; give me thy hand ; away." — Idem. 
" Would you youth and beauty stay, 
" Love hath wings, and will away." — Waller. 
" Up, up, Glentarkin ! rouse thee, ho !" — Scott. 

Note I. — Adverbs must be placed in that position, 
which will render the sentence the most perspicuous and 
agreeable. 

Obs. — For the placing of adverbs, no definite general rule can 
be given. Those which relate to adjectives, immediately precede 
them ; and those which belong to compound verbs, are commonly 
placed after the auxiliary. 

Note II.— Adverbs should not be used as adjectives; nor 
should they be employed, when quality is to be expressed, 
and not manner: as, " The then ministry," — " The soonest 
time," — " The above discourse," — " Thine often infirmi- 
ties," — " It seems strangely." These are all wrong, 

Note IIF.— With a verb of motion, grammarians prefer 
hither, thither, and whither, to here, there, and where, which 
are in commou use; as, "Come hither, Charles," — not, 
" Come here." 

Note IV. — To the adverbs hence, thence, and whence, 
the proposition from is frequently (though not with strict 
propriety) prefixed. 

Note V. — The adverb how should not be used before 
the conjunction that, nor in stead of it; as, "He said how 
he would go." Expunge how. 

Note VI. — The adverb no should not be used with ref- 
erence to a verb or a participle. Such expressions ag, 
"Tell me whether you will go or no, are therefore impro- 
per. No should be not. 

Obs. 1. — The adverb yes, expressing a simple affirmation, and 
the adverb no, expressing a simple negation, are always independ- 
ent. They generally answer a question ; and are equivalent to a 
repetition of it, in the form of an affirmative or a negative propo- 
sition. 

Obs. 2. — JVa, when prefixed to a noun, In an adjective , as, 
" JVo clouds, no vapours intervene." — Dyer. 

Note VII, — A negation, in English, admits but one neg- 
ative word: as, M I could not wait any longer," — not, "wo 
longer," 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Obs. 1. — The repetition of a negative word or clause, strength- 
ens the negation ; as, " No, no, no." But two negatives in the 
same clause, destroy the negation, and render the meaning affir- 
mative ; as, " Nor did they not perceive their evil plight." — Milton. 
That is, they did perceive it. 

Obs. 2. — Ever is preferable to never, in sentences like the fol- 
lowing : " Though he Avere ever so rich, he would not be satis- 
fied." — " He is mistaken, though ever so wise." 

Obs. 3. — By the customary (but faulty) omission of the negative 
before but, that conjunction has acquired the adverbial sense of 
only ; and it may, when used with that signification, be called an 
adverb ; as, " All our laughter is but pain." — Anon. 

" Reason itself but gives it edge and power." — Pope. 

" Born but to die, and reasoning but to err." — Idem. 

Obs. 4. — We sometimes find adverbs used after the manner of 
nouns ; as, " The Son of Man hath not where to lay his head."— 
Matt. viii. 20. " The Son of God— was not yea and nay, but in 
him was yea." — 2 Cor. i. 19. " An eternal now does always last," 
■—Cowley. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples under Note 1 . 

We were received kindly. 

[Not proper, because the adverb kindly is not in the most suit 
able place. But, according to Note 1st under the Rule 15th, " Ad- 
verbs must be placed in that position, which will render the sen- 
tence the most perspicuous and agreeable." The sentence will 
be improved by placing kindly before received ; thus, We were 
kindly received.] 

The work will be never completed. 

We always should prefer our duty to our pleasure. 

It is impossible continually to be at work. 

He impertinently behaved to his master. 

The heavenly bodies are in motion perpetually. 

Not only he found her busy, but pleased and happy -even. 

Under Note 2. 

The above remarks are quoted from memory. 
When a substantive is put absolutely. 
Such expressions sound harshly. 
His after conduct was more satisfactory- 
Such events are of seldom occurrence* 
Velvet feels very smoothly. 



SYNTAX. 155 

Under Note 3. 

Bring him here to me. 

I shall go there again in a few days. 

Where are they all riding in so great haste ? 

Under Note 4. 

From hence it appears, that the statement is incorrect, 
From thence arose the misunderstanding. 
Do you know from whence it proceeds ? 

Under Note 5. 

You see how that not many are required. 

I knew how that they had heard of his misfortunes. 

He remarked, how time was valuable. 

Under Note 6. 

Know now, whether this be thy son's coat or no. 
Whether he is in fault or no, I cannot tell. 
I will ascertain whether it is so or no. 

Under Note 7. 

I will not by no means eutertain a spy. 

Nobody never invented nor discovered nothing, in no way 

to be compared with this. 
Be honest, nor take no shape nor semblance of disguise. 
I did not like neither his temper nor his principles. 
Nothing never affected her so much as this misconduct of 

her son. 

RULE XVI. 

Conjunctions connect either words or sentences ? 
as, " Let there be no strife, I pray thee, between 
me and thee, and between my herdmen and thy 
herdraen; for we are brethren." — Gen. xiii. 8. 

Obs. 1. — Conjunctions that connect particular words, generally 
join similar parts of speech, in a common dependence on some 
other term. Those which connect sentences or clauses, commonly 
unite one to an other, either as an additional affirmation, or as a 
condition, a cause, or an end. 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Obs. 2. — Two or three conjunctions sometimes come together r 
as, " What rests, but that the mortal sentence pass?" — Milton. 

Obs 3. — Conjunctions should not be unnecessarily accumulated; 
as, " But and if that evil servant say in his heart" — Matt. xxiv. 48. 
Greek, '£«y di s'Ittji o kukos £ouXo$ lx,eivo$, &c. 

Obs. 4. — The conjunction as, often unites words that are in ap- 
position ; as, " He offered himself as a. journeyman." 

Obs. 5. — As frequently has the force of a relative pronoun ; as, 
" Avoid such as are vicious." — " But to as many as received him," 
&c. — " He then read the conditions, as follows." Here as repre- 
sents a noun, and is the subject of a verb. [See Tooke's Diversions 
of Purley.] But when a clause or sentence, is the antecedent, it is 
better to consider as a conjunction, and supply the pronoun it ; as, 
iC He is angry, as [it] appears by this letter." 

Obs. &. — The conjunction that, is frequently understood; as, 
" Thou warnst me [that] I have done amiss." — Scott. 

Obs. 7. — The conjunction that, when it introduces a sentence as 
the subject of a verb, does not connect it to any other term ; as, 
" That mind is not matter, is certain." 

Obs. 8. — When two correspondent conjunctions occur, the 
former may be parsed as referring to the latter, which is, in gene- 
ral, more properly the connecting word ; as, " Neither promises 
nor threats availed any thing." 

Obs. 9. — After than or as, expressing a comparison, there is usu- 
ally an ellipsis of some word or words. The construction of the 
words employed, may be known by supplying the ellipsis ; as* 
"She is younger than I" [am]. — " He does nothing, who endea- 
vours to do more than [what] is allowed to humanity." — Johnson. 

Note I. — In connecting words, by conjunctions or 
otherwise, their consistency and adaptation should be care- 
fully observed ; and a regular, clear, and correspondent 
construction, should be preserved throughout. Thus : 
instead of, " It always has. and always will be laudable," 
say, " It always has been, and it always will be, laudable." 

Note II.- — The disjunctive conjunctions lest and but, 
should not be employed where the copulative that, would 
be more proper ; as, " I feared that I should be deserted," 
sot, " lest I should be deserted." 

Note III. — After else, other, rather, and all compara- 
tives, the latter term of comparison, should be introduced 
by the conjunction than ; as, " Can there be any oihev 
than this ?" — Harris. 



SYNTAX. 157 

Note IV. — The words id each of the following pairs, are 
the proper correspondents to each other; and care should 
be taken, to give them their right place in the sentence: 

1. Though— yet; as, " Though he were dead, yet shall 
he live." 

2. Whether — or; as, "Whether there be few or many." 

3. Either — or; as, "He was either ashamed or afraid." 

4. Neither — nor ; as, " The Baptist came, neither eating 
bread, nor drinking wine." 

5. Both — and; as, " I am debtor both to the Greeks and 
to the Barbarians." 

6. Such — as; as, " An assembly such as earth saw never." 

7. Such — that; with a finite verb, to express a conse- 
quence : as, " My engagements are such, that I cannot 
attend." 

8. As — as; with an adjective or an adverb, to express 
equality: as, " The peasant is as gay as he." 

9. As — so ; with two verbs, to express equality or pro- 
portion : as, " As two are to four, so are six to twelve." 

10. So — as; with an adjective or adverb, to limit its 
degree by comparison : as, " How can you descend to a 
thing so base as falsehood?" — with a negative preceding, 
to deny equality : as, " No lamb was e'er so mild as he:"— 
or, with an infinitive following, to express a consequence : 
as, " These difficulties were so great as to discourage him." 

11. So — that; with a finite verb following, to express a 
consequence: as, "He was so much injured, that he could 
not walk." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples under Note 1. 

The first proposal was essentially different and inferior 
to the second. 

[Not proper, because the preposition to, is used with joint re* 
ference to the two adjectives different and inferior, which require 
different prepositions. But, according to Note 1st under Rule 
16th, " In connecting words, by conjunctions or otherwise,* their 
consistency and adaptation should be carefully observed; and a 
regular, clear, and correspondent construction, should be pre- 
served throughout." The sentence may be corrected thus; The 
first proposal was essentially different from the second, and 
inferior to it] 

15 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

He has marie alterations and additions to the work. 

He is more bold and active, but not so wise and studious, 

as his companion. 
Sincerity is as valuable, and even more so, than knowledge. 
Hn may be said to have saved the life of a citizen; and, 

consequently, entitled to the reward. 
I always have, and always shall be, of this opinion. 
The men had made inquiry for Simon's house, and stood 

before the gate. 
The king of France or England, was to be the umpire. 
What is now kept secret shall be hereafter displayed and 

heard in the clearest light. 
We pervert the noble faculty of speech, when we use it to 

the defaming, or to disquiet our neighbours. 
The art of printing being then unknown, was a circumstance, 

in some respects favourable to the freedom of the pen. 
Another passion which the present age is apt to run into, 

is to make children learn all things. 
Be more anxious to acquire knowledge, than of showing it. 
It requires few talents to which most men are not born, or, 

at least, may not acquire. 
The court of chancery frequently mitigates and breaks 

the teeth of the common law. 

Under Note 2. 

We were apprehensive lest some accident had happened. 

I do not deny but he has merit. 

Are you afraid lest he will forget you. 

These paths and bowers, doubt not but our joint hands 
Will keep from wilderness. - 

Under Note 3, 

It was no other but his own father. 

Have you no further proof except this ? 

I expected something more besides this. 

He no sooner retires but his heart burns with devotion. 

Such literary filching is nothing else but robbery. 

Under Note 4. 

Neither despise or oppose what you do not understand. 
He would not either do it himself nor let me do it. 



SYNTAX. 159 

Tlie majesty of good things is such, as the confines of them 

are reverend. 
Whether he iutends to do so, I cannot tell. 
Send me such articles only, that are adapted to this market. 
As far as I am able to judge, the book is well -written. 
JNTo errors are so trivial but they deserve correction. 
It will improve neither the mind, nor delight the fancy. 
The one is equally deserving as the other. 
There is no condition so secure as cannot admit of change. 
Do you think this is so good as that. 
The relations are so obscure as they require much thought. 
None is so fierce that dare stir him up. 
There was no man so sanguine who did not apprehend some 

ill consequence. 
I must be so candid to own that I do not understand it. 
The book is not as well printed as it ought to be. 

So still he sat as those who wait, 

Till judgement speak the doom of fate. 

RULE XVII. 



Prepositions show the relations of things: as, "The 
house was founded on a rock." 

Obs. 1. — The former terra of relation is sometimes understood ; 
as, [I say] "In a word, it would entirely defeat my purpose." — ■ 
" For all shall know me, [reckoning] from the least to the great- 
est." — Heb. viii. 11. 

Obs. 2. — When a preposition introduces the infinitive, a phrase, or 
asentence,whieh is made the entire subject or predicate of a prop- 
osition, it has no antecedent term of relation ; as, " To be good, is, 
to be happy." — " To be reduced to poverty, is a great affliction." — 
" For an old man to be reduced to poverty, is a very great afflic- 
tion." Dr. Adam remarks, that " To is often taken absolutely ; as, 
' To confess the truth,' — ' To proceed.'" But his examples are not 
appropriate ; for what he and many other grammarians call the in- 
finitive absolute, evidently depends on something understood. 

Obs. 3. — The preposition (a3 its name implies) precedes the 
word which it governs. But, in poetry, the. preposition is some- 
times placed after its object ; as, 

"'Wild Carron's lonely iuoods among." — Langhorne. 

Obs. 4. — In the familiar style, a preposition governing a relative 
or an interrogative pronoun, is often separated from its object, and 
connected with the other term of relation; as, " Whom _did he 
speak to ? But. it is more dignified, and, in general, more graceful. 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

to place the preposition before the pronoun ; as, " To whom did 
he speak ?" 

Obs. 5. — Two prepositions sometimes come together ; as, 

" And from before the lustre of her face." — Thomson. 
Obs. 6. — Two separate prepositions have sometimes a joint ref- 
erence to the same noun ; as, " He boasted of, and contended for, 
the privilege." This construction is formal, and scarcely allow- 
able, except in the law style. It is better to say, " He boasted of 
the privilege, and contended for it." 

Note I. — Prepositions must be employed agreeably to 
the usage and idiom of the language. 

Obs. 1. — The preposition info, expresses a relation producedby 
motion or change ; and in, the same relation, without reference to 
motion : hence, " to walk into the garden," and, " to walk in the 
garden," are very different. 

Obs. 2. — Between is used in reference to two things or parties ; 
among or amidst, in reference to a greater number. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples under Note 1. 

Her sobriety is no derogation to her understanding. 

[Not propel", because the relation between derogation andunder- 
standing is not correctly expressed by the preposition to. But, ac- 
cording to Note 1st under Rule 17th, " Prepositions must be em- 
ployed agreeably to the usage and idiom of the language." The 
relation would be better expressed by from ; thus, Her sobriety is 
no derogation from her understanding.] 

She finds a difficulty of fixing her mind. 

This affair did not fall into his cognizance. 

He was accused for betraying his trust. 

There was no water, and he died for thirst. 

I have no occasion of his services. 

You may safely confide on bim, 

I entertain no prejudice to him. 

You may rely in what I tell you. 

Virtue and vice differ widely with each other, 

This remark is founded in truth. 

After many toils, we arrived to our journey's end. 

I will tell you a story very different to that. 

Their conduct is agreeable with their profession, 

Excessive pleasures pass from satiety in disgust, 

I turned into disgust from the spectacle. 

They are gone in the meadow. 

Let this be divided between the three. 



SYNTAX. 161 

The shells were broken in pieces. 

The deception has passed among every one* 

They never quarrel among each other. 

Amidst every difficulty, he persevered. 

Let us go above stairs. 

I was at London, when this happened. 

We were detained to home, and disappointed in our walk. 

This originated from mistake. 

The Bridewell is situated to the west of the City-Hall, and 

it has no commuoicatioD to the other buildings. 
I am disappointed of the work ; it is very interior from 

what I expected. 

RULE XVIII. 

Interjections have no dependent construction : as 5 

." O / let not thy heart despise me." 

Obs. — When a word, not in the nominative absolute, is connect- 
ed with an interjection, or used in exclamation, its construction 
generally depends upon something understood ; as, lt . Ah me !"*— 
that is, " Ah ! pity we." 

2. GOVERNMENT. 

RULE XIX. 

A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case, is gov- 
erned by the name of the thing possessed : as, 

" Theirs is the vanity, the learning thine ; 

Touch'd by thy hand, again Rome^s glories shine." 

Obs. 1. — The governing noun is sometimes understood; as " At 
the alderman's" [house]. — " A book of my brother's" [books]. 

Obs. 2.— When words in the possessive case are connected by 
conjunctions, expressed or understood, the governing noun is of- 
ten expressed after one, and understood after the rest; as, 

" Add Nature's, Custom's, Reason's, Passion's strife." — Pope. 

Obs. 3. — The possessive case is always an adjunct to a noun; 
and some grammarians have classed it with the adjectives. 

Note I.— In the use of the possessive case, its appropri- 
ate form should be observed. 

Note II. — When nouns of (he possessive case, are con- 
nected by conjunctions, or put in apposition, the sign of 
15 * 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

possession must always be annexed to such, and such only, 
as immediately precede the governing noun, expressed or 
understood; as, "John and Eliza's teacher is a man of 
more learning than James's, or Andrew's. " — " For Da- 
vid my servant's sake."- — w Lost in love's and friendship's 
smile." 

Obs. 1. — The apostrophe and s are sometimes annexed to that 
part of a compound name, which is, of itself, in the objective case ; 
as, " The captain-of-tbe-guard's house." — " The Bard-of-Lomond's 
?ay is done." 

Obs. 2. — To avoid a concurrence of hissing sounds, the s is 
sometimes omitted, and the apostrophe only retained ; as, " For 
conscience' sake," — " Moses' minister," — " Felix' room," — " A- 
chilles' wrath." But, in prose, this elision should be sparingly 
indulged. 

Note III. — The relation of property may also be ex- 
pressed by the preposition of; as, " The will of man," — 
tor, " man's will." Of these forms, we should adopt that 
which will render the sentence the most perspicuous and 
agreeable; and, by the use of both, avoid an unpleasant 
repetition of either. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Examples under Note 1. 

Thy ancestors virtue is not thine. 

[Not proper, because the noun ancestors, which is intended for 
the possessive case, has not the appropriate form of that case. But, 
according to Note 1st under Rule 19th, " In the use of the posses- 
sive case, its appropriate form should be observed." An apos- 
trophe is required after ancestors; thus, Thy ancestors' virtue is 
not thine.] 

Maus chief good is an upright mind. 

I will not destroy the city for ten sake. 

Moses rod was turned into a serpent. 

They are wolves in sheeps clothing. 

The tree is known by it's fruit. 

This privilege is not their's, any more than it is your's. 

Yet he was gentle as soft summer airs, 

Had grace for others sins, but none for theirs'. 



SYNTAX. 163 

Under Note 2. 

There is but little difference between the Earth and Ve- 

nus's diameter. 
This hat is John, or James's. 
The store is opposite to Morris's and Company's. 
This palace had been the grand sultan's MahometV, 
This was the Apostle's Paul's advice. 
Were Cain's occupation and Abel the same? 
Were Cain and Abel's occupation the same ? 
Were Cain's aud Abel's occupations the same? 
Were Gfcin and Abel's parents the same ? 
Were Cain's parents and Abel the same ? 
Was Cain's and Abel's father there? 
Were Cain's and Abel's parents there? 

Thy Maker's will has placed thee here, 
A Maker's wise aud good. 

Under Note 3. 

The world's government is not left to chance. 
He was Louis the Sixteenth's son's heir. 
The throne we honour is the choice of the people, 
We met at my brother's partner's house. 
An account of the proceedings of the court of Alexander. 
Here is a copy of the Constitution of the Society of Teach- 
ers of the city of New- York. 

RULE XX. 

Active-transitive verbs, and their imperfect and 
compound participles, govern the objective case : 
as, "I found her assisting him" — " Having finished 
the work, I submit it. 99 

Obs. 1. — The objective case generally follows the governing 
word: but when H is emphatic, it often precedes the nominative; 
as, " Home he had not." — " This point they have gained :" and, in 
poetry, it is sometimes placed between the nominative and the 
verb ; as, " His daring foe securely him defied."-~Milton. " The 
broom its yellow leaf hath shed."— Langhorne. A relative or an in- 
terrogative pronoun is commonly placed at the head of its clause ; 
as, " Whom will the meeting appoint ?" 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Obs. 2.— -All active-transitive verbs have some noun or pronoun 
for their object. Though verbs are often followed by the infinitive 
mood, or a dependent clause, forming a part of the logical predi- 
cate ; yet these terras, being commonly introduced by a connect- 
ing particle, do not constitute such an object as is contemplated in 
our definition of a transitive verb. If, in the sentence, " Boys love 
to play," the verb be transitive ; why not also in, " Boys like to 
play," " Boys delight to play," " Boys seem to play," " Boys cease 
to play," and the like ? 

Obs. 3. — The word that, which is often employed to introduce a 
clause, is, by some grammarians, considered as a pronoun, repre- 
senting the clause which follows it. And their opinion seems to be 
warranted both by the origin and the general import of the parti- 
cle. But, in conformity to general custom, and to his own views 
of the practical purposes of grammatical analysis, the«puthor has 
ranked it with the conjunctions And he thinks it better ,to call those 
verbs intransitive, which are followed by that, and a dependent 
clause, than to supply the very frequent ellipses which the other 
explanation supposes. To explain it as a conjunction, connecting 
an active-transitive verb and its object, (as several respectable gram- 
marians do,) appears to involve some inconsistency. 

Obs. 4. — Verbs of declaring, of making, and of naming, are often 
followed by two objectives in apposition : as, "Thy saints proclaim 
ihee king." — " The Author of my being formed me many — " And 
God called the firmament Heaven." 

Obs. 5. — When a verb is followed by two words in the objective 
case, which are not in apposition, nor connected by a conjunction, 
one of them is governed by a preposition understood ; as, u I paid 
[to] him the money, ." — " They offered [to] me a seat." — " He ask- 
ed [of] themihe question." 

Obs. 6. — In expressing such sentences passively, the object of the 
preposition is sometimes erroneously assumed for the nominative ; 
as, " He was paid the money," instead of, " The money was paid 
[to] him" 

Note T. — Those verbs and participles which require a 
regimen, should not be employed without it ; as, " She 
affects [kindness], in order to ingratiate [herself] with 
you."—" I will not allow of it." Expunge of. 

Note II. — Those verbs and participles which do not 
admit a regimen, should not be used transitively ; as, 
" The planters grow cotton.*' Say raise, or cultivate. 

Obs. — Some verbs will govern a kindred noun, or its pronoun, 
but no other ; as, " He livedo virtuous life."—*'- Hear, I pray you, 
this dream which I have dreamed." 

Note III. — The passive verb should always take for 
its subject the direct object of the active-transitiye verb 
from which it is derived ; as', " This privilege was denied 
rae," — not, " / was denied this privilege." 



SYNTAX. 165 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Examples under Rule 20. 

She I shall more readily forgive. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun she, which is the object of the 
active -transitive verb shall forgive, is in the nominative case. But, 
according to Rule 20th, " Active transitive verbs, and their imper- 
fect and compound participles, govern the objective case." There- 
fore, she should be her ; thus, Her I shall more readily forgive.] 

Thou only have I chosen. 

Who shall we seud on this errand ? 

My father allowed my brother and I to accompany him. 

He that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. 

Who should I meet but my old friend! 

How long will it take ye to do it ? 

He accosts whoever he meets. 

Whosoever the court favours, is safe. 

They that honour me I will honour. 

Who do you think I saw the other day ? 

Under Note 1. 

The ambitious are always seeking to aggrandize. 
I must premise with three circumstances. 
This society does not allow of personal reflections. 
False accusation cannot diminish from real merit. 
His servants ye are to whom ye obey. 

Under Note 2. 

Good keeping thrives the herd. 
We endeavoured to agree the parties, 
Being weary, he sat him down. 
Go, flee thee away into the land of Judah. 
The popular lords did not fail to enlarge tbeiuselres oo the 
subject. 

Under NoteZ, 

They were refused the benefit of their recantation 
Believers are not promised temporal riches. 
We were shewn several beautiful pictures. 
But, unfortunately, I was denied the favour. 
You were paid a high compliment. 
I have never been asked the question, 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULE XXL 

Active-intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs?, and 
their participles, take the same case after as before 
them, when both words refer to the same thing : as, 
" He returned & friend, who came a foe." — u The 
child wa» named John."— u It could not be he" 

Obs. 1. — This is, perhaps, more properly a rule of agreement ; the 
word which follows the verb or participle, may be said to be in ap- 
position with that which precedes it. [See Rule III.] 

Obs. 2. — In interrogative sentences, the terms are usually trans- 
posed, or both are placed after the verb ; as, 

" Whence, and what art thou, execrable shape ?" — Milton. 

" Art thou that traitor angel ? art thou he ?" — Idem. 

Obs. 3. — In some peculiar constructions, both words naturally 
come before the verb ; as, " I know not who she is." And they are 
sometimes placed in this manner by transposition.; as. " Yet He it 
is." — Young. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Examples under Rule 21. 

We did not know that it was him. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun him, which follows the neuter 
verb was, is in the objective case, and does not agree with the pro- 
noun if , which precedes the verb, in the nominative; both words 
referring to the same thing. But, according to Rule 21st, " Ac- 
tive-intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs, take the same case after 
as before them, when both words refer to the same thing." There 
fore, him should be he ; thus, We did not know that it was he.~\ 

We thought it was thee. 

I would act the same part, if I were him. 

It could not have beea her. 

It is uot me, that he is angry with. 

They believed it to be I. 

It was thought to be him. 

If it had been her, she would have told us. 

We know it to be they. 

Whom do you think it is ? 

Who do you suppose it to be ? 

We did not know whom they were. 

Thou art him whom they described, 

Impossible ! it can't be me. 

Whom did he think you were ? 

Whom say ye that I am ? 



SYNTAX. 167 

RULE XXII. 

Prepositions govern the objective case : as, 

" Truth and good are one : 
And beauty dwells in than, and they inker, 
With like participation.''' — Akenside. 

Obs. 1. — Most of the prepositions may take the imperfect parti- 
ciple for their object : and some, the compound : as, " On opening 
the trial, they accused him of having defrauded them." 

Obs. 2. — Prepositions are sometimes elliptically construed with 
adjectives : as, in vain, in secret, at first, on high ; i. e. in a vain man- 
ner, in secret places, at the first time, on high places. Such phrases 
imply time, place, degree, or manner, and are equivalent to ad- 
verbs. 

Obs. 3. — In a few instances prepositions precede adverbs ; as, at 
once, from above. 

Obs. 4. — When nouns of time or measure are connected with 
verbs or adjectives, the prepositions which govern them, are gen- 
erally suppressed : as, " We. rode sixty miles that day ;" that is, 
" through sixty miles on that day." — " The wall is ten feet high j" 
thatis, " high to ten feet." Such expressions as, ''Aboard of six 
feet long," — " A boy of twelve years old," are wrong. Strike out 
of; or say, "A board of six feet in length," — "A boy of twelve years 
of age." 

Obs. 5. — After the adjectives like and near, the preposition to or 
unto is generally understood ; as, " It is like [to or unto] silver." — 
" Near [to] yonder copse." As similarity and proximity are rela- 
tions, and not qualities, it might seem proper to call like and near 
prepositions. But grammarians have not so classed them ; for the 
preposition to or unto is sometimes expressed after them, and the 
words which usually stand for them in the learned languages, are 
clearly adjectives. Like, when it expresses similarity of manner, 
and near, when it expresses proximity of degree, are adverbs. 

Obs. 6. — The adjective worth is followed by the objective 
case, governed, perhaps, by of understood; as, " The book is worth 
a dollar." Some suppose that worth in this construction is a noun, 
and that there is a double ellipsis of the preposition; as, "The 
book is [of the] worth [of] a dollar." After the kindred adjec- 
tive worthy , o/should be expressed ; as, " It is worthy of remark." 

Obs. 7. — Worth was anciently a verb, signifying he, and used in 
every part of the conjugation. [See Diversions of Purley, Vol. I. 
p. 178.] Some traces of this usage are found in modern writings ; 
as, " 

" Wo worth the chase, wo worth the day, 
That cost thy life, my gallant gray!" — Scott. 

Here wortli is a verb, and to is understood after it ; the meaning be- 
ing, " Wo be to the chase," &c. 

Obs. 8. — After verbs of giving, procuring, and some others, there 
is usually an ellipsis of to or for before the objective of the person; 
as, " Give [to] him water to drink." — " Buy [for] me a knife," 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples under Rule 22. 

It rests with thou and me to decide. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun thou is in the nominative case, 
and is governed by the preposition with. But, according to Rule 
22d, " Prepositions govern the objective case." Therefore, thou 
should be thee ; thus, It rests with thee and me to decide.] 

Let that remain a secret between you and I. 
I lent the book to some one, I know not who. 
Let no quarrel occur among ye. 
Who did he inquire tor ? Thou. 
From he that is needy turn not away. 
We are all accountable, each for his own act's. 
Does that boy know who he is speaking to. 
I bestow my favours on whosoever I will. 

RULE XXIII. 

The preposition to governs the infinitive mood, 
and commonly connects it to a finite verb : as, "I de- 
sire to learn." 

Obs. 1. — No word is more variously explained by grammarians, 
than this word to, which is prefixed to the verb in the infinitive 
mood. Johnson, Walker, Scott, and other lexicographers, call it an 
adverb ; but, in explaining its use, they say it denotes certain rela- 
ft'orcs, which it is not the otfice of an adverb to express. [See Johnson's 
Dictionary, 4to.} Lowih, Murray, Comly, and others,call it aprepo- 
sition ; and some of these ascribe to it the government of the verb, 
and others do not. Lowih says, " The preposition to placed before 
the verb, makes the infinitive mood." Skinner, in his Canones 
Etymologici, calls it an equivocal article. Home Tooke, who shows 
that most of our conjunctions and prepositions may be traced back 
to ancient verbs and nouns, says that to has the same origin as do, 
and he seems to consider it an auxiliary verb. Many are content to 
call it a prefix, a. particle, a sign of the infinitive, &c. without tell- 
ing us why or how it is so, or to what part of speech it belongs. If 
it be a part of the infinitive, it must be classed with the auxiliaries. 
We have chosen that explanation which we consider to be the most 
correct and the most simple. 

Obs. 2. — -Most grammarians have considered the word to, as a 
part of the infinitive; and have referred the government of this 
mood to a preceding verb. But the rule which they give, is par- 
tial and often inapplicable; and their exceptions to it are numerous 
and puzzling. They teach that at least half the different parts of 



SYNTAX. 169 

speech frequently govern the infinitive : if so, there should be a dis- 
tinct rule for each ; for why should the government of one part of 
speech be made an exception to that of an other ? and, if this be 
done, with respect to the infinitive, why not also with respect to 
the objective case ? In all cases to Avhich their rule is applicable, 
the rule here given amounts to the same thing ; and it obviates the 
necessity for their numerous exceptions, and the embarrassment 
arising from the constructions of the infinitive not noticed in them. 

Obs. 3. — The infinitive thus admits a simpler solution in English, 
than in most other languages. In French, the infinitive, though 
frequently placed in immediate dependence on an other verb, 
may also be governed by several different prepositions, fas d, de, 
pour, sans,) according to the sense. In Latin, the infinitive is, for 
the most part, dependent on an other verb. But, according to the 
grammars, it may stand for a noun in all the six cases ; and many 
have called it an indeclinable noun. See the Port Royal Latin Gram- 
mar ; in which many constructions of the infinitive, are referred to 
the government of apreposition understood. 

Obs. 4. — Though the infinitive is commonly made an adjunct to 
some finite verb, yet it may be joined to almost all the other parts 
of speech, or to an other infinitive: as, 

1. To a noun; as, " He had leave to go." 

2. To an adjective ; as, " We were anxious to see you." 

3. To a pronoun ; as, " I discovered him to he a scholar." 

4. To a verb in the infinitive ; as, " To cease to do evil." 

5. To a participle ; as, " Endeavouring to escape, he fell." 

6. To an adverb ; as, " She is old enough to go to school." 

7. To a conjunction ; as, " He knows better than to trust you," 

8. To a preposition / as, "I was about to write." 

9. To an interjection ; (by ellipsis ;) as, " to forget her !" 

Obs. 5. — The infinitive is the mere verb, without affirmation ; 
and, in some respects, resembles a noun. It may stand for— 

1. A subject ; as, " To steal is sinful." 

2. A predicate ; as, " To enjoy is to obey." 

3; A purpose, or an end ; as, " He's gone to do it." 

4. An employment ; as, " He loves to ride." 

5. A cause ; as, " I rejoice to hear it." 

6. A coming event ; as, " A structure, soon to fall." 

7. A term of comparison ; as, " He was so much affected as to 
weep." 

Obs. 6. Anciently, the infinitive was sometimes preceded by /ey- 
as well as to ; as, " I went up to Jerusalem for to worship "-—Acts. 
xxiv. 11. 

" Learn skilfullie how 

" Each grain for to laie by itself on a mow." — Tusser, 

Modern usage rejects the former preposition. 

Obs. 7. — The infinitive sometimes depends on a verb understood ; 
as, " To be candid with you, [J confess] I was in fault." 

Obs. 8. — The infinitive, or a phrase of which the infinitive is a 

16 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

part, being introduced apparently as the subject of a verb, but su- 
perseded by some other word, is put absolute ; as, 

" To be, or not to be — that is the question." — Shakspeare. 

Obs. 9. — The infinitive of the verb be, is often understood ; as r 
" I suppose it [to be] necessary." 

Obs. 10. — The infinitive usually follows the word on which it de- 
pends ; but this order is sometimes reversed: as, 

" To catch your vivid scenes, too gross her hand." — Thomson. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Examples under Rule 23. 

Ought these things be tolerated ? 

[Not proper, because the infinitive be tolerated, is not pre- 
ceded by the preposition to. But, according to Rule 23d, " The 
preposition to governs the infinitive mood, and commonly con- 
nects it to a finite verb." To should be inserted > thus. Ought 
these things to be tolerated ?] 

Please excuse my son's absence. 
Cause every man go out from me. 
Forbid them enter the garden. 
Do you not perceive it move. 
AUow other's discover your merit. 
He was seen go in at that gate. 
Permit me pass this way. 



RULE XXIV. 

The active verbs bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, 
need, see, and their participles, take the infinitive af- 
ter them; without the preposition to: as, "If he 
bade thee depart, how darest thou stay?" 

Obs. 1. The preposition is always employed after the passive 
form of these verbs, and, in some instances, after the active ; as, 
41 He was heard to say."- — " I cannot see to do it." — " What would 
dare to molest him who might call, on every side, to thousands 
enriched by his bounty ?" — Johnson. 

Obs. 2.— The auxiliary be of the passive infinitive is also sup* 
pressed, after feel, hear, make, and see; as 3 "I heard the letter 
rearf 3 "— not ? " be read," 



SYNTAX. 171 



FALSE SYNTAX. 
Examples under Rule 24. 

They need not to call upoD her. 

[Not proper, because the preposition to is inserted before call 3 
which follows the active verb need. But, according to Rule 24th. 
" The active verbs bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see, and 
their participles, take the infinitive after them, without the prepo- 
sition to." Therefore, to should be omitted ; thus, They need not 
call upon her.] 

1 felt a chilling sensation to creep over me. 

I have heard him to mention the subject. 

Bid the boys to come in immediately. 

I dare to say he has not got home yet. 

Let no rash promise to be made. 

We sometimes see bad men to be honoured. 

A good reader will make himself to be distinctly heard. 

RULE XXV. 

A noun or a pronoun is put absolute in the nomi- 
native, when its case depends on no other word : as, 
" He failing, who shall meet success ?" — " Your 
fathers, where are they ? and the prophets, do they 
live forever ?" — Zeclu i. 5, 

u This said, he form'd thee, Adam! thee, O man! 
Dust of the ground." — Milton* 

Obs. 1. — A noun or a pronoun is put absolute in the nominative^ 
under the following four circumstances : 

1. When, with a participle, it is used to express a cause, or a con- 
comitant fact ; as, u Thou looking on, 

Shame to be overcome or overreach'd, 
Would utmost vigour raise." — Milton. 

2. When it is used simply as a term of address ; as, " At length, 
Seged, reflect and be wise." All nouns in the second person, are 
put absolute. 

3. When, for the sake of emphasis, it is abruptly introduced by 
pleonasm ; as, " He that is in the city, famine and pestilence shall 
devour him." — " Gad, a troop shall overcome him." — " The south 
and the north, thou hast created them."— Bible. 

4 When it is used as a mere exclamation, without address, and 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

without other words expressed or implied to give it construction; as, 
"Oh ! deep enchanting prelude to repose !" — Campbell. 

Obs. 2. — The nominative put absolute with a participle, is equiv- 
alent to a dependent clause commencing with when, while, if, since, 
or because; as, " I being a child," — equal to, "When I was a child." 

Obs. 3. — The participle being is often understood after nouns or 
pronouns put absolute ; as, 

"■ Alike in ignorance, his reason [ ] such, 

Whether he thinks too little or too much." — Pope. 

Obs. 4. — All nouns preceded by an article, are in the third per- 
son ; and, in exclamatory phrases, such nouns sometimes appear to 
have no determinable construction : as, " O the depth of the riches 
both of the wisdom and knowledge of God !" — Rom. xi. 33. 

Obs. 5. — The case of nouns used in exclamations, or in mottoes 
and! abbreviated sayings, often depends, or may be conceived to 
depend, on something understood ; and when their construction 
can be satisfactorily explained on the principle of ellipsis, they are 
not put absolute. The following examples may perhaps be resolv- 
ed in this manner, though the expressions will lose much of their 
vivacity : " A horse ! ahorse .' my kingdom for a horse !" — " Heaps 
upon heaps" — " Skin for skin" — " An eye for an eye, and a tooth for 
a tooth" — " Day after day" — " World without end." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Examples under Rule 25. 

Him having ended his discourse, the assembly dispersed. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun him, whose case depends on 
no other word, is in the objective case. But, according to Rule 
25th, "A noun or a pronoun is put absolute in the nominative, 
when its case depends on no other word." Therefore him should 
T)e he ; thus, He having ended his discourse, the assembly dispersed.] 

Me being young, they deceived me. 

Them refusing to comply, I withdrew. 

Thee being present, he would not tell what he knew. 

The child is lost; and me, whither shall I go ? 

Her quick relapsing to her former state, 
With boding fears approach the serving train. 
There all thy gifts and graces we display. 
Thee, only thee, directing all our way. 

RULE XXVI. 

A future contingency is best expressed by a verb 
in the Subjunctive present; and a mere supposition, 



SYNTAX. 173 

with indefinite time, by a verb in the Subjunctive im- 
perfect : but a conditional circumstance assumed as a 
fact, requires the Indicative Mood: as, "li thou for- 
sake him, he will cast thee off forever." — "If it were 
not so, I would have told you." — "If thou went, no- 
thing would be gained."— "Though he is poor, he 
is contented." 

Note I. — In connecting words that express time, the 
order and fituess of time, should be observed. Thus: in 
stead of, " I have seen him last week," say, " I saw him last 
week;" and in stead of, " I saw him this week" say, " I have 
seen him this week" 

Note II. — Verbs of commanding, desiring, expecting, 
hoping, intending, permitting, and some others, in all their 
tenses, refer to actions or events, relatively present or future. 
One should therefore say, "I hoped you would come " — not, 
" would have come;" and, " I intended to do it," — not, " to 
have done it." 

Note III. — Propositions that are at all times equally 
true, should generally be expressed in the present tense ; 
as, "He seemed hardly to know, that two and two make 
four," — not, "made." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples under Rule 26. 

He will not be pardoned, unless he repents. 

[Not proper, because the verb repents, which is used to express 
a future contingency, is in the indicative mood. But, according to 
the first clause of Rule 26th, "A future contingency is best express- 
ed by a verb in the subjunctive present." Therefore, repents should 
be repent; thus, He will not be pardoned, unless he repent .] 

He will maintain his cause, though he loses his estate. 

They will fine thee, unless thou offerst an excuse. 

I shall walk out in the afternoon, unless it rains. 

Let him take heed lest he falls. 

On condition that he comes, I consent to stay. 

If he is but discreet, he will succeed. 

Take heed that thou speakest not to Jacob. 

If thou easiest me off, I shall be miserable. 

Send them to me, if thou pleasest. 

16* 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

And so would I, if I was he. 

[Not proper, because the verb was, which is used to express a 
mere supposition, with indefinite time, is in the indicative moodv 
But, according to the second clause of Rule 26th, " A mere suppo- 
sition, with indefinite time, is best expressed by a verb in the sub- 
junctive imperfect." Therefore, was should be were; thus, And so 
would I, if I were he,] 

If I was to write, he would not regard it. 

It* thou feltest as I do, we should soon decide. 

Though thou sheddest thy blood in the cause, it would but 

prove thee sincerely a fool. 
If thou lovedst him, there would be more evidence of it. 
I believed, whatever was the issue, all would be well. 
If love was never feigned, it would appear to be scarce. 
There fell from his eyes, as it had been scales. 
If he was an impostor, he must have been detected. 

Was death denied, e'en fools would wish to die. 

Was I as wealthy as a south-sea dream, 

Wishing is an expedient to be poor. 

If he koow the way, he does not need a guide. 

[Not proper, because the verb know, which is used to express a 
conditional circumstance assumed as a fact, is in the subjunctive 
mood. But, according to the last clause of Rule 26th, " A. condi- 
tional circumstance assumed as a fact, requires the indicative 
mood." Therefore, know should be knows ; thus, If he knows the 
way, he does not need a guide.] 

Though he seem to be artless, he has deceived us. 

If he think as he speaks, he may safely be trusted. * 

Though this event be strange, it certainly did happen. 

If thou love tranquillity of mind, seek it not abroad. 

If seasons of idleness be dangerous, what must a continued 

habit of it prove ? 
Though he were a son, yet learned he obedience by the 

things which he suffered. 
I knew thou wert not slow to hear. 

Under Note 1. 

The work has been finished last week. 
He was out of employment this fortnight. 
This mode of expression has been formerly in use. 
I should be much obliged to him, if he will attend to it. 
I will pay the vows which my lips have uttered when J 
was in trouble. 



-SYNTAX. I7d 

I have compassion oo the multitude, because they con- 
tinue with me now three days. 

I thought, by the acceut, that he had been speaking to his 
child. 

And he that was dead, sat up and began to speak. 

Thou hast borne, and hast patience, and for my name's 
sake hast laboured, and hast not fainted. 

Ye will not come unto me that ye might have life. 

At the end of this quarter, I shall be at this school two years. 

\ty e have done no more than it was our duty to have done, 

Under Note 2. 

"We expected that he would have arrived last night. 

Our friends intended to have met us. 

We hoped to have seen you. 

He would not have been allowed to have entered. 

Under Note 3. 

The doctor affirmed, that fever always produced thirst. 
The ancients asserted, that virtue was its own reward. 

PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX. 

There is a spirit in man; and the inspiration of the Al- 
mighty giveth them understanding. 
My people doth not consider. 
I have never heard who they invited. 

Then hasten thy return; for, thee away, 

Nor lustre has the sun, nor joy the day. 
I am as well as when you was here. 
That elderly man, he that came in late, I suppose to be the 

superintendent. 
All the virtues of mankind are to be counted upon a few 

fingers; but his follies and vices are innumerable. 
It must indeed be confessed, that a lampoon or a satire do 

not earn in them robbery or murder. 
There was more persons than one engaged in this affair. 
A man who lacks ceremony, has need for great merit. 
A wise man avoids the showing any excellence in trifles. 
The most important and first female quality is sweetness 

of temper. 
We choose rather lead than follow. 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Ignorance is the mother of fear, as well as admiration. 
He must fear many, who many fear. 
Every one partake of honour bestowed on the worthy. 
The king nor the queen were not at all deceived. 
Was there no difference, there would be no choice. 
I ha:3 rather have been informed. 
Must thee return this evening ? 
Life and death is in the power of the tongue. 
I saw a person that I took to be she. 
Let him be whom he may, I shall not stop. 
This is certainly an useful invention. 
fi It is no more but justice," quoth the farmer. 
Great improvements has been made. 
It is undoubtedly true what I have heard. 
The nation is torn by feuds which threaten their ruin, 
The account of these transactions were incorrect. 
Godliness with contentment, are great gain. 
The number of sufferers have uot been ascertained. 
There are one or more of them yet in confinement. 
They have chose the wisest part. 
He spent his whole life in doing of good. 
They know scarcely that temperance is a virtue 
I am afraid lest I have laboured in vain. 
Mischief to itself doth back recoil. 
This construction sounds rather harshly. 
What is the cause of the leaves curling ? 
Was it thee, that made the noise ? 
Let thy flock clothe upon the naked. 
Wisdom and knowledge is granted unto thee. 
His conduct was surprising strange. 
This woman taught my brother and I to read. 
Let your promises be such that you can perform. 
We shall sell them in the state they now are. 
We may add this observation, however. 
This came in fashion when I was young. 
I did not use the leaves, but root, of the plant. 
We have used every mean in our power. 
Pass ye away, thou inhabitant of Saphir.— Mtca/t, i. }l. 
Give every syllable and every letter their proper sound. 
To know exactly how much mischief may be ventured 
on with impunity, are knowledge enough for some folks. 



SYNTAX. lT7 

Every leaf, and every twig teem with life. 

I was rejoiced at this intelligence. 

At this stage of advancement, there is little difficulty in the 
pupil's understanding the passive and neuter verbs. 

I was afraid that I should have lost the parcel. 

Which of all these patterns is the prettier ? 

They which despise instruction, shall not be wise. 

Both thou and thy advisers have mistaken their interest. 

A idle soul shall suffer hunger. 

The lips of knowledge is a precious jewel. 

I and my cousin are requested to attend. 

Can only say, that such is my belief. 

This is different from the conscience being made to feel. 

Here is ground for their leaving the world with peace, 

Where are you all running so fast ? 

A man is the noblest work of creation. 

Of all other crimes this is the most atrocious. 

The tribes whom I visited, are partially civilized. 

From hence I conclude, they are in error. 

The girls' books are neater than the boys. 

I intended to have transcribed it. 

Shall a character made up of the very worst passions,pass 
under the name of a gentleman ? 

Rhoda ran in, and told how Peter stood before the gate. 

What is latitude and longitude ? 

Cicero was more eloquent than any Roman. 

Who dares apologize for Pizarro ?-— who is but an othe? 
name for rapacity ! 

Tell me whether you will do it or no. 

After the most strictest sect of our religion, I lived a Pha- 
risee. 

I know not who it was who did it. 
Doubt not, little though there be, 
But I'll cast a crumb to thee. 

This rule is the best which can be given. 

I have never seen no other way. 

These are poor amends for the men and treasures which we 
have lost. 

Dost thou know them boys ? 

This is part of my uncle's father's estate. 

Many people never learn to speak correct. 

Some people are rash, and others timid : those apprehend 
too much, these too little. 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Is it lawful for us to give tribute to Caesar or no ? 

Give no more trouble than you can possibly help. 

I no sooner saw my face in it, but I was startled at the 

shortness of it. 
Every person is answerable for their own conduct. 
They are men that scorn a mean action, and who will 

exert themselves to serve you. 
I do not recollect ever having paid it. 
The stoics taught that all crimes were equal. 
Every one of these theories are now exploded. 
Either of these four will answer. 
There is no situation where he would be happy. 
The boy has been detected in stealing, that you thought so 

clever. 
I will meet thee there, if thee please. 
He is not so sick, but what he can laugh. 
These clothes does not fit me. 
The audience was all very attentive. 
Was the master, or any of the scholars in the room ? 
His father's and mother's consent was asked. 
Whom is he supposed to be ? 
He is an old venerable man. 
It was then my purpose to have visited Sicily. 
It is to the learner only, and he that is in doubt, that this 

assistance is recommended. 
There are not the least hope of his recovery. 
Anger and impatieuce is always unreasonable. 
In his letters, there are not only correctness, but elegance. 
Opportunity to do good is the highest preferment which a 

noble mind desires. 
The year when he died is not mentioned. 
Had I knew it, I should not have went. 
Was it thee that- spoke to me ? 
The house is situated pleasantly. 
He did it as private as he possibly could. 
Subduing our passions is the noblest of conquests. 
James is more diligent than thee. 
Rain is seldom or ever seen at Lima. 
He appears to be diffident excessively. 
The number of our days are with thee. 
Like a father pitieth his children, so the Lord pitieth them 

that fear him. 



SYNTAX, 179 

The circumstances of this case, is different. 

Well for us, if some such other men should rise ! 

A man that is young in years, may be old in hours, if he 
have lost no time. 

The chief captain, fearing lest Paul should have been pull- 
ed in pieces of them, commanded the soldiers to go down, 
and to take him by force from among them. 

That brother should not war with brother, 
And worry and devour each other. 



EXAMPLES FOR PARSING, 

(CHAPTER VIII.; 

In which are exemplified nearly all the Observations 
tinder the Rules of Syntax and the Notes. 

LESSON I. 

The philosopher, the saint, or the hero — the wise, the 
good, or the great man, very often lies hid and concealed 
in a plebeian, which a proper education might have disin- 
terred and brought to light. — Addison. 

The darker the ignorance, the more praise to the sage 
who dispels it ; — the deeper the prejudice, [the] move fame 
to the courage which braves it. — A Few Days in Athens. 

The approbation of our familiars, who are with us in our 
secret hours, hear our private converse, know the habits of 
our lives, and the bent of our dispositions, ought to be far 
more triumphant and pleasing to us than the shouts of a 
multitude. — Idem. 

Ah ! my sons, here is indeed a pain, a pain that cuts in- 
to the soul. — He who feels not the loss, hath never felt the 
possession — See the price of a friend in the duties we ren- 
der him, and the sacrifices we make to him, and which, in 
making, we count not sacrifices, but pleasures ! — O ! what 
a treasure is that for which we do so much ! And is # for- 
bidden us to mourn its loss ? If it be % the power is not with 
us to obey.— Idem* 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Were our body never subject to sickness, we might be 
insensible to the joy of health. Were our friendship not 
threatened with interruption, it might want much of its ten- 
derness. — Idem. 

The Muses Fortune's fickle smile deride, 

!Nor ever bow the knee to Mammon's fane. — Beattie. 

The happier reign, the sooner it begins ; 

Reign then; what canst thou better do the while ? — Milton. 

lesson ir. 

The long-suffering of God waited in the days of Noah, 
while the ark was a preparing. — 1. Pet. iii. 20. 

Mercy and truth are met together ; righteousness and 
peace have kissed each other. — Ps. Ixxxv. 10. 

In vain do they worship me, teaching for doctrines the 
commandments of men. — Mat. xv. 9. 

Knowest thou not this of old, since man was placed up- 
on the earth, that the triumphing of the wicked is shorthand 
the joy of the hypocrite but for a moment ? — Job. xx. 4,5. 

They shall every man turn to his own people, and flee 
every owe into his own land. — Isaiah, xiii. 14. 

Wherefore ye needs must be subject, not only for wrath, 
but also for conscience'' sake.— Rom. xiii. 5. 

But Peter continued knocking ; and when they had open- 
ed the door, and saw him, they were astonished. — 
Acts, xii. 16. 

Ye have heard that it hath been said, * An eye for an 
eye, and a tooth for a tooth-'— -Mat. v. 35. 

For now I see through a glass, darkly; but i\\en,face to 
face : now I know in part; but then shall I know even as 
also I am known. — 1 Cor. xiii. 12. 

Every man should let his man-servant, and every man 
his maid-servant, being an Hebrew or an Hebrewess, go 
free; that none should serve himself of them, to wit, of a 
Jew his brother. — Jer. xxxiv. 9. 

Then the king of Babylon's army besieged Jerusalem ; 
and Jeremiah the prophet was shut up in the counof the 
' prison which was in the king of Judatis house. — Jer. 
xxxii. 2. 



SYNTAX. 181 

1 Tertins, who wrote this epistle, salute you in the 
Lord. — Rom. xvi. 22. 

And this is the record of Joha, when the Jews sent priests 
and Levites from Jerusalem to ask him, Who art thou?' And 
he confessed, and deuied not; but confessed, '1 am not the 
Christ.' And they asked him, 'What then ? art thou Elias ?' 
and he saith, 'I am not '— ' A rt thou that prophet V and he 
answered, 'No.'—John i. 19. 

The new moons and sabbaths, the calling of assemblies, 
I cannot away with : it is iniquity, even the solemn meet- 
ing\— Isaiah i. 13. 

Each moss, each shell, each crawling insect holds 
A rank important in the plan of Him 
Who fram'd this scale of being. 

LESSON III. 

The rudiments of every language, therefore, must be giv- 
en as a task, cot as an amusement- Goldsmith. 

Time we ought to consider as a sacred trust committed 

rV US u by G ° d ' °f which we are now the depositaries, and 
L of which] we are to render an account at the last. —Blair. 

Thus justice, properly speaking is the only virtue; and 
ail the rest have their origin in it.— Goldsmith. 

True generosity is a duty, as indispensably necessary as 
those [which are] imposed upon us by law.— Idem. 

To teach men to be orators, is little less than to teach 
them to be poets. — Idem 

Lysippus is told that his banker asks a debt of forty 
pounds, and that a distressed acquaintance petitions for the 
same sum. He gives it, without hesitating, to the latter- 
for he demands as a favour what the former requires as a 
debt. — Idem. 

'That I know not what I want,' said the prince, is 'the 
cause of my complaint; if I had any known want, I should 
have a certain wish ; that wish would excite endeavour; and 
I should not then repine to see the sun move so slowly towards 
the western mountain, or lament when the day breaks and 
sleep will no longer hide me from myself.'— Johnson ■ 

'My friends,' said he, 'I have seriously considered our 
manners and our prospects ; and [ I ] find that we have rais- 
17 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

taken our own interest. Let us,therefore, stop, while to stop 
is in our power? — They stated awhile in silence one up- 
on another, and at last drove him away by a general chorus 
of continued laughter. — Idem. 

The laws of eastern hospitality allowed them to enter, and 
the master welcomed ihemjike a man liberal and wealthy. 
He was skilful enough in appearances soon to discern that 
they were no common guests, and spread his table with mag- 
nificence. — Idem, 

The year before, he had so used the matter, that, what 
by force, what by policy, he had taken from the Christians 
above thirty small castles. — Knolles. 

The tear that gathered in his eye, 

He left the mountaiu breeze to dry. — Scott. 



LESSON IV. 

'Knowledge,' said the Master, 'is the best riches that man 
can possess. But he often pursues it, as he does happiness, 
without finding it; or, at best, obtains of it but an imperfect 
glimpse. It is not that the road to it is either dark or diffi- 
cult, but that he takes a wrong one ; or, if he enters on the 
right, he does so, unprepared for the journey. JNTow, he 
thinks knowledge one with erudition; and, shutting himself 
up in his closet, he cons all the lore of antiquity ; he fath- 
oms the sciences, heaps up in his memory all the sayings 
of the dead, and, reckoning the value of his acquisitions by 
the measure of the time and labour he has expended on them, 
he is satisfied that he has reached his end, But.alas ! learn- 
ing is not wisdom, nor will books give understanding. 
Again, he takes a more inviting road : he rushes into the 
crowd; he rolls down the stream of pleasure; he courts the 
breath of popularity ; he unravels or weaves the riddles of 
intrigue; he humours the passions of his fellows; and rises to 
name and power. Then, laughing at the credulity, igno- 
rance, and vice, he has set his throne upon, he says, that to 
know the world, is the only knowledge, and to see to dupe 
it, is, to be wise. Yet, knowledge of the world is not knowl- 
edge of man, and to triumph in the passions of others, is not, 
io triumph over our own. No, my sons, that only is real, is 
sterling kuowledge, which goes to make us better and hap. 



SYNTAX. 183 

pier men, and which fits us to assist the virtue and happi- 
ness of others. All learning is useful, all the sciences are 
curious, ail the arts are beautiful; but more useful, more 
curious, and more beautiful, are the perfect knowledge and 
perfect government of ourselves.'— A Few Days in Athens. 

See the sole bliss Heaven could on all bestow ; 
Which who but feels, can taste, but thinks, can know: 
Yet, poor with fortune, and with learning blind, 
Thebadmust miss, the good, untaught, will find. — Pope. 

LESSON V. 

There are, who, deaf to mad Ambitious call, 
Would shrink to hear th' obstreperous trump of fame; 
Supremely blessed, if to their portion fall 
Health, competence, and peace. — Bcattie. 

The end and the reward of toil is rest. — Idem* 

Shame to mankind! Philander had his foes; 
He felt the truths I sing, and I in him : 
But he, nor I feel more. — Young. 

Lorenzo, to recriminate is just. 

Fondness for fame is avarice of air.— Idem. 

W r rong he sustains with temper, looks on heaven, 
Nor stoops to think his injurer h\sfoc. — Idem. 

Amid the forms which this full world presents 

Like rivals to his choice, what human breast 

E'er doubts before the transient and minute. 

To prize the vast, the stable, and sublime? — Akenside. 

Now fears in dire vicissitude invade; 

The rustling brake alarms, and quiv'ring shade: 

Nor light nor darkness brings his pain relief; 

One shows the plunder, and one hides the thief. — Johns. 

So reads he nature, whom the lamp of truth 
Illuminates:— thy lamp, mysterious Word! 
Which whoso sees, no longer wanders lost, 
With intellects bemaz'd in endless doubt, 
But runs the road of wisdom. — Cowper. 

From education, as the leading cause, 
The public character its colour draws; 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Hence the prevailing manners take their cast, 
Extravagant or sober, loose or chaste.— Idem. 

Mercy to him that shows it, is the rule 

And righteous limitation of its act, 

By which heaven moves in pard'ning guilty man. — Idem. 

Yet O the thought, that thou art safe, and he! 

That thought is joy, arrive what may to me. — Idem. 

LESSON VI. 

Then palaces and lofty domes arose; 

These for devotion, and for pleasure those. — Blackmore. 

O poor hapless nightingale, thought J, 

How siveet thou singst, how near the deadly s?iare! — Milt 

Give every man thine ear, but few thy voice; 
Take each man's censure but reserve thy judgement. 
Neither a borrower nor a lender be; 
For loan oft loseth both itself and friend. — Shak. 

Sorrow breaks reasons, and reposing hours ; 

Makes the night morning, and the noon-tide night. — Idem. 

Nor then the solemn nightingale ceased warbling. — Milton. 

The bless'd to-day is as completely so, 

As who began a thousand years ago. — Pope. 

Thus virtue sinks beneath unnumbered woes, 

When Passions, born her friends, revolt her foes.— Idem. 

Full many a gem of purest ray serene 

The dark unfathom'd caves of ocean bear; 
Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 

And waste its sweetness on the desert air. — Gray. 

Then, kneeling down to heaven's eternal King, 
The saint, the father, and the husband prays ; 

Hope springs exulting on triumphant wing, 

That thus they all shall meet in future days. — Burns. 

These are thy blessings, Industry ! rough power, 

Whom labour still attends, and sweat, and pain.— Thomson. 

Sweet bird! thy bow'r is ever green, 

Thy sky is ever clear; 
Thou hast no sorrow in thy song, 

No winter in thy year.— Logan. 



SYNTAX. 1B5 



Hark ! they whisper ; angels say, 

'Sister spirit, come away!' 
What is this absorbs me quite, 

Steals my senses, shuts my sight ? — Pope. 

LESSON VII. 

Oh fool! to think God hates the worthy mind, 
The lover and t\k love of human kind, 
Whose life is healthful, and whose conscience clear, 
Because he wants a thousand pounds a year.— Pope, 

, He can't flatter, he! 

An honest mind and plain; he must speak truth, 
An they will hear it so ; if not, he'-s plain. — Shak. 

What! canst thou not forbear me half an hour? 
Then get thee gone, and dig my grave thyself. — Idem. 

Hemote from man, with God he pass'd his days, 

Prayer all his business, all his pleasure praise. — Parnell. 

Nature in silence bid the world repose; 

When near the road a stately palace rose. — Idem. 

It chanc'd the noble master of the dome 

Still made his house the wand'ring stranger's home. — Idem. 

If still she loves thee, hoard that gem; 
'Tis worth thy vanish'd diadem. — Byron. 

He calls for Famine, and the meagre fiend 
Blows mildew from between his shrivell'd lips, 
And taints the golden ear. — Cowper. 

What ho! thou genius of the clime, what ho! 

Liest thou asleep beneath these hills of snow ? — Dryden* 

Oh ! what a tangled web we weave, 

When first we practice to deceive! — Scott. 

—Here he had need 

All circumspection ; and we now, no less, 
Choice in our suffrage; for on whom we send, 
The weight of all, aud our last hope relies.— Milton. 
Who wickedly is wise, or madly brave, 
Is but the more a fool, the mare a knave. — Pope. 
To copy beauties, forfeits all pretence 
To fame ; — to copy faults, is want of sense.-- Churchill. 
17 * 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Whose freedom is by suff'rance, and at will 
Of a superior, he is never free. — Cowper. 

A field of corn, a fountain, and a wood, 

Is all the wealth by nature understood.— Cowley, 



QUESTIONS ON SYNTAX. 

Of what does syntax treat ? 

What is the relation of words ? 

What is the agreement of words? 

What is the government of words? 

What is the arrangement of words? 

What is a sentence? 

What are the principal parts of a sentence ? 

What are the other parts called ? 

How many kinds of sentences are there? 

What is a simple sentence ? 

What is a compound sentence ? 

What is a clause ? 

What is a phrase? 

What words must be supplied in parsing ? 

How many rules of syntax are there ? 

Of what do the first eighteen treat? 

To what do the rest principally refer ? 

To what do articles relate? 

What case is employed as the subject of a verb ? 

What agreement is required between words in apposition ? 

How does a pronoun agree with its antecedent? 

How does a pronoun agree with a collective noun? 

How does a pronoun agree with joint antecedents? 

How does a pronoun agree with disjunct antecedents ? 

How does a verb agree with its subject or nominative ? 

How does a verb agree with a collective noun ? 

How does a verb agree with joint nominatives ? 

How does a verb agree with disjunct nominatives? 

What agreement is required, when verbs are connected ? 

How are participles employed ? 

To what do adverbs relate? 

What is the use of conjunctions ? 



SYNTAX. 187 

What is the use of prepositions ? 

To what do interjections relate ? 

By what is the possessive case governed? 

What case do active-transitive verbs govern? 

What case is put after other verbs? 

What case do prepositions govern ? 'fc 

What governs the infinitive mood ? 

What verbs take the infinitive after them, without the pre 
position to ? 

When is a noun or pronoun put absolute ? 

When should the subjunctive mood be employed ? 

What is required of the pupil in the seventh chapter of ex- 
amples for parsing ? 

What are exemplified in the eighth chapter of examples 
for parsing ? 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

When the pupil has been sufficiently exercised in syn- 
tactical parsing, and has corrected orally, according to the 
formules given, all the examples of false syntax explained 
in the Key, he should write out the following exercises, 
correcting them according to the principles of syntax giv* 
en in the rules and notes. 

EXERCISE I.— ARTICLES. 

Christianity claims an heavenly origin. 

An useless excellence is a cootradiction in terms. 

It would have an happy influence on genius. 

Part not with a old friend for an new acquaintance. 

Justice eyes not the parties, but cause. 

I found in him a friend, and not mere promiser. 

These fathers lived in the fourth and following century, 

The rich and poor are seldom intimate. 

The Bible contains the old and the new testaments. 

An elegant and florid style are very different. 

The humility is a deep which no man can fathom. 

The true cheerfulness is the privilege of the innocence* 

A devotion is a refuge from a human frailty. 

The duplicity and the friendship are not congenial. 

The familiarity with the vicious fosters a vice. 

A forced happiness is a solecism m the terms. 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The favourites are generally the objects of the envy. 

An equivocation is a mean and a sneaking vice. 

He sent an other and rather a more modest letter. 

The flatterers are put to a flight by an adversity. 

An obstinacy is unfavourable to the discovery of the truth. 

The conic sections are a part of the geometry. 

What is the proper meaning of a Landgrave ? 

Sensuality is one kind of pleasure, such an one as it is. 

What sovereign assumes the title of an Autocrat ? 

Believe me the man is less a fool than a knave. 

He is a much deeper deceiver than a sufferer. 

Laziness is a greater thief than pickpocket. 

Heroes who then flourished, have passed away. 

Time which is to come, may not come to us. 

EXERCISE II.— NOUNS. 

A friend should bear a friends infirmities'. 

Deviations' from rectitude are approaches to sin. 

Crafty person's often entrap themselves. 

Mens mind's seem to be somewhat variously constituted. 

The great doctors, adept's in science, often disagree. 

The two men were ready to cut each others' throats. 

We weut at the rate of five mile an hour. 

His income is a thousand pound a year. 

Five bushel of wheat are worth forty shilling. 

Reading is one mean of acquiring knowledge. 

The well is nt least ten fathom deep. 

I shall be a hundred mile off by that time. 

Wisdom and Folly's votaries travel different roads. 

The true philanthropist is all mankind's friend. 

He desires the whole human race's happiness. 

The idler and the spendthrift's faults are similar. 

A good mans words inflict no injury. 

Be not generous at other peoples expense. 

True hope is swift, and flies with swallows wings. 

Lifes current holds its course, and never returns. 

Many assume Virtues livery, who shun her service. 

I left the parcel at Richardson's, the bookseller's. 

The books are for sale at Samuel Wood's and Sons'. 

Where shall we find friendship like David's and Jonathan's. 

Acquiesce for peace's and harmony's sake, 



SYNTAX. 189 

The moons disk often appears larger than the sun. 

Consult Sheridan, Johnson, and Walker's dictionary. 

Such was my uncles' agent's wife's economy. 

A frugal plenty marks the wise mans board. 

This mob, for honesty sake, broke open all the prisons. 

Our sacks shall be a mean to sack the city, 

Such was the economy of the wife of the agent of my uncle. 

These emmet's, how little they are in our eyes ! 

Childrens minds may be easily overloaded. 

EXERCISE III— ADJECTIVES. 

A palmistry at -which this vermin are very dexterous. 

These kind of knaves I know. 

Vanity has more subjects than any of the passions. 

The vain are delighted with fashionable and new dresses. 

So highly did they esteem this goods. 

Washington has been honoured more than any American. 

Which is the loftier of the Asiatic mountains. 

This ashes they were very careful to preserve. 

Is not she the younger of the three sisters ? 

Could not some less nobler plunder satisfy thee ? 

I can assign a more satisfactory and stronger reason. 

Peter was older than any of the twelve apostles. 

Peace of mind is easier lost than gained. 

Of this victuals he was always very fond. 

Man has more wants than any animal. 

Of all other practical rules this is the most complex. 

Is not French more fashionable than any language ? 

Vice never leads to old honoured age. 

Cloths of a more inferior quality are more saleable. 

This is found in no book published previous to mine. 

He turned away with the most utmost contempt. 

Time glides swift and imperceptible away. 

Of their more ulterior measures I know nothing. 

My three last letters were never answered. 

Fortune may frown on the most superior genius. 

It becomes a gentleman to speak correct. 

The most loftiest mountain is Mont Blanc. 

If a man acts foolish is he to be esteemed wise ? 

Drop your acquaintance with them bad boys. 

They sat silently and motionless an hour and a half. 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Quiet minds, like smooth water, reflect clear. 

True faith, true policy, united ran, 

This was but love of God, and that of man* 

EXERCISE IV.— PRONOUNS. 

Him that presumes much, has much to fear. 

They b^st can bear reproof whom merit praise. 

A few pupils, older than me, excited my emulation. 

Every man will find themselves in the state of Adam. 

None are more rich than them who are content. 

Scotland and thee did in each other live. 

These trifles they do not deserve our attention. 

Truth is ever to be preferred for it's own sake. 

Thou art afraid — else, what ails you ? 

It is not Lemuel, but God, whom you have offended. 

All things which have life aspire to God. 

So great was the multitude who fuilowed him. 

He which would advance, should not look backwards. 

It was Sir Billy — who is an other name for a fop. 

I take up the arguments in the order they stand. 

There is nothing, with respect to me, and such as me. 

He that is bribed, the people will abhor. 

The day when the accident happened is not recorded. 

We know not who to trust; them who seem fair, are false. 

The reason I told it, was this; thee was in danger. 

I did not know the precise time when it occurred. 

Here he answers the question, who asks it. 

Who who beheld the outrage could remain inactive ? 

This was the prison where we were confined. 

I could not believe but what it was a reality. 

It was the boys, and not the dog, which broke the basin. 

An unprincipled junto is not nice about their means. 

The people forced its way, and demanded its rights. 

Avoid lightness and frivolity : it is allied to folly. 

Either wealth or power may ruin their possessor. 

It was Joseph, him whom Pharaoh promoted. 

Origen's mother hid his clothes, to prevent him going. 

Him that withholdeth corn, the people shall curse him. 

He that withholdeth corn the people shall curse. 

I have always thought ye honest, till now. 

Me being but a boy, they took no notice of me. 

They that receive me I will richly reward. 



SYNTAX. 191 

Had it beeD them, they would have stopped. 

Vain pomp, and glory of this world, I hate ye. 

It was not me, that gave you that answer. 

Between you and I, he is a greater thief than author. 

Any dunce can copy what you or me shall write. 

You seem to forget who you are talking to. 

Thee being a stranger, the child was afraid. 

This was the most remarkable event which occurred. 

Happy are them whose pleasure is their duty, 

EXERCISE V.— VERBS. 

Where was you standing during the transaction ? 

Was you there when (he pistol was fired? 

Thou sees how little difference there are. 

If he have failed, it was not through my neglect. 

Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. 

Tuere was many reasons for not disturbing my repose. 

The train of brass artillery and other ordnance are immense, 

Art thou the mau that earnest from Judah? 

What eye those long, long labyrinths dare explore ? 

Magnus and his friends was barbarously treated. 

The propriety of these restrictions, are unquestionable. 

And I am one that believe the doctrine. 

Thou wast he that leddest out and broughtest in Israel. 

Beauty without virtue generally prove a snare. 

If thou means to advance, eye those before thee. 

A qualification for high offices, come not of indolence. 

The desires of right reason is bounded by competency. 

Useless studies is nothing but a busy idleness. 

Is virtue, then, and piety the same? 

So awful an admonition was these miraculous words. 

If the great body of the people thinks otherwise. 

A committee are a body that have only a delegated power 

In peace of mind consists our strength and happiness. 

There is no slander, where love and unity is maintained, 

His character as well as his doctrines were assailed. 

Proof, and not assertion, are what are required. 

Right reason and truth is always in unison. 

No pains nor cost were spared to make it grand. 

Ignorance stupifies, and is the source of many crimes. 

Then wanders forth the sous 

Of Belial, flown with insolence and wine. 



192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

What you must chiefly relv on, is the attested facts. 
jNo axe or hammer have ever awakened an echo here. 
Did not she send, and gave you this information? 
Their honours are departing and come to an end. 
Neither wit, nor taste, nor learning, appear in it. 
Caligula sal himself up for a deity. 
A tortoise requested the eagle to learn him to fly. 
1 O, that it was always spring!' said little Robert. 
I at first intended to have arranged it in a new form. 
The gaoler supposed that the prisoners had been fled. 
Peter saw a vessel, as it had been a great sheet. 
Peace and esteem is ail that age can hope. 

Alas, no wife or mother's care 
For him the milk or corn prepare. 

Thou bark that sails with man ! 
Haste, haste to cleave the seas. 

EXERCISE VI.- PARTICIPLES. 

What dost thou mean by shaking of thy head ? 

A good end warrants not using bad means. 

Be cautious in forming of connexions. 

The worshiping the two calves was still kept up. 

In reading of his lecture, he was much embairassed. 

This devoting ourselves to God, must be habitual. 

Their estimating the prize too highly, was evident. 

He declared the project to be no less than a tempting God, 

Every deviation from virtue is approaching to vice. 

It is extremely foolish boasting of immoral achievements. 

It was the refusing all communion with paganism. 

Our deepest knowledge is knowing ourselves. 

He wilfully neglects the obtaining unspeakable good. 

Retaliating injuries is multiplying oflences. 

These things are certain : there is no denying facts. 

Publicly vindicating error is openly adopting it. 

On his father asking him who it was, he answered, c I.' 

Thus shall we escape being defeated and ruined. 

Being unjustly liberal is ostentatious pride. 

Wisdom teaches justly appreciating of all things. 

The procuring these benefits, was a gratuitous act. 

Doing good, disinterested good, is notour trade. 

Such a renouncing the world is a pernicious delusion. 



SYNTAX. 193 

Freely indulging the appetite impairs the intellect. 

The Acts mention Paul preaching of Christ at Damascus. 

The Acts mentiou Paul's preaching Christ at Damascus. 

The Acts mention Paul preaching Christ at Damascus. 

Constantly beholding objects prevents our admiring them. 

We purpose taking that route when we go. 

What was the cause of the young woman fainting ? 

I perceived somebody's creeping through the fence. 

I was aware of them intending to arrest me. 

We saw some mischievous boys' worrying of a cat. 

To pursue fashion, is chasing a bird on the wing. 

Being very positive, is no real proof of a stable miud. 

By establishing good laws, our peace is secured. 

Distinctness is important in delivering orations. 

He guarantied the permission we demanded being granted. 

For the easier reading the numbers in the table. 

Recovering the first surprise, however, we entered boldly. 

EXERCISE VII.— ADVERBS, &c. 

Respect is lost often by the means used to obtain it. 
Such were the views of the then ministry. 
Railery must be very nice to not offend. 
Ye know how that it is an unlawful thing. 
From hence I infer, that they were going there. 
Quaint sayings are long remembered often. 
I cannot tell you whether this is the fact or no. 
Valleys are more fertile generally than mountains. 
A qualification of usefulness is acquired with study. 
Frequent transgression makes men slaves of sin. 
Let nothing induce you ever to utter a falsehood. 
The idle are, of necessary consequence, ignorant. 
The wind came about so as we could make no way. 
Zealots seldom are distinguished by charity. 
Study is as necessary and even more so than instruction. 
I never have, and never shall be compensated. 
Humility neither seeks the first place or the last word- 
He has never told me nothing more of the matter. 
These men ranked highly among the nobility. 
Their bodies are so solid and hard, as you need not feai%. 
Of her brother's political life previously to this event. 
Attainments made easily, are not of much value often- 
He has no other merit but that of a compiler. 
18 



194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Venus appears uncommonly brightly to night. 

Men cannot be forced neither into or out-of true faith. 

To this man we may commit safely our cause. 

One crime cannot be a proper remedy to an other 

Venus is not quite as large as the Earth, 

It is thinking makes what we read our own. 

Q,uagmires have smooth surfaces commonly. 

He was so much offended, as he would not speak to mt» 

I have put my words in thy mouth. 

How wilt thou put thy trust on Egypt for chariots ? 

EXERCISE VIII.— PROMISCUOUS. 

In his fathers reign, they were connected and joined. 

What is the Earth and its dimensions ? 

He is a great deai heavier man than I. 

The citizens were never denied the privilege. 

Thankful to heaven that thou wert left behind. 

I have met with few who understood men equal to him. 

He was then recently returneqrfrom the east victorious. 

He hoped that money should have been given him. 

Laws may, and frequently are made against drunkenness. 

He appeared in an human shape. 

I do not attempt explaining the mysteries of religion. 
Ere matter, time, or place, were knowu, 
Thou sway'dst these spacious realms alone. 

One of the wisest persons that hath been among them. 

What is it else but to reject all authority ? 

They advocate distinctions unworthy any free state. 

It would not, and ought not, be felt. 

Them who saw the disaster, were greatly alarmed. 

He knew none fitter to be their judge but himself. 

Record the names of every one present. 

We doubt not but we will satisfy the impartial. 

But time and chance happeneth to them all. 

You was in hopes to have succeeded to the inheritance,. 

To make light of a small fault, are to commit a greater. 

Judge not before hearing of the cause. 

Clear articulation is requisite in publicly speaking. 

God h the avenger of all breach of faith and injustice. 

I had a letter began, and nearly half wrote. 

It \$ better being suspected than being guilty. 

Declare the past and present state of things, 



SYNTAX. 195 

To insult the afflicted are impious and barbarous. 
Goodness, and not greatness, lead to happiness. 
It is pride who whispers, 'What will they think of me?' 
In judging of others, charity should be exercised. 
Zanies are willing to befool, to please fools. 
Questions are easier proposed than answered rightly. 

He forms his schemes the flood of vice to stem ; 
But preaching Jesus is not one of them. 

EXERCISE IX,— PROMISCUOUS. 

The property of the rebels were confiscated. 

He was extreme covetous in all his dealings. 

There were no less than thirty islands. 

The plot was the easier detected. 

Of all the books mine has the fewer blots. 

Who does the house belong to ? 

Is this the person whom you say was present? 

Knowledge is only to be acquired by application. 

Policy often prevails upon force. 

These men were seen enter the house in the night. 

These works are Cicero, the most eloquent of men's. 

Thomas has bought a bay large horse. 

Your gold and silver is cankered. 

Now abideth faith, hope, and charity. 

And, him destroyed, all this will follow. 

There is no need for your assistance. 

To whom our fathers would not obey. 

Where can we find such an one as this ? 

They sat out early on their journey. 

Philosophers have often mistook the source of happiness. 

The books are as old, and perhaps older, than tradition, 

This chapter is divided in sections. 

I shall treat you as I have them. 

A prophet mightier than him. 

Neither he or his brother is capable of it. 

Richelieu profited of every circumstance. 

"What was the cause of the girl screaming ? 

Let him and I have half of them. 

I wrote to, and cautioned the captain against it, 

Nothing is more lovelier than virtue. 

He that is diligent, you should commend. 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

They ride faster than us. 

Which of them grammars do you like best ? 

^Neither of these are the meaning intended. 

Did you understand who I was speaking of ? 

Whosoever of you will be chiefest, shall be servant of all.. 

Remember what thou wert, and be humble. 
Was I deceiv'd ? or did a sable cloud 
Turn forth her silver lining on the night ? 

EXERCISE X.— PROMISCUOUS. 

Changed to a worser shape thou caust not be. 

For him through hostile camps I bend my way, 

For him thus prostrate at thy feet I lay. 

Thus oft by mariners are shown 

Eari Godwin's castles overflown. 
No civil broils have, since his death, arose. 
Nor thou, that flings me floundering from thy back. 
Who should I see but the doctor! 
That which once was thee. 
To wish him wrestle with affection. 

So much she fears for William's life, 

That Mary's fate she dare not mourn. 
Fhalaris, who was so much older than her. 
They would have given him such satisfaction in other par- 
ticulars, as a full and happy peace must have ensued. 
The woman which we saw is very amiable. 
The three first classes have read. 
An union in that which is permanent. 
Among every class of people self-interest prevails. 
Such conduct is a disgrace of their profession. 
His education has been neglected much. 
There is no other bridge but the one we saw. 
He went and laid down to sleep. 
Whom do men say that I am ? 
Take to you haodfuls of ashes of the furnace, and let Moses 

sprinkle it towards the heaven in the sight of Pharaoh. 
In eulogizing of the dead, he slandered the living. 
If a dog both give the first turn and the last, he shall win. 
Neither the virtuous or the vicious are exempt from trial?. 
He spoke as if he was in a passion. 
Let him take heed lest he fails. 
We have all swerved out-of the path of duty. 



SYNTAX. J 97 

I cannot agree with him neither. 

He both wrote sermons and plays. 

If a man say, 'I love God,' and hateth his brother, he is a liar 

He has long ago forsaken that party. 

It was proved to be her that opened the letter. 

Is not this the same man whom we met before? 

I forego my claim for peace's sake. 

For thou art a girl as much brighter than her. 

As she was a poet sublimer than me. 

EXERCISE XL— PROMISCUOUS. 

There remains two points to be settled. 

I could not avoid frequently usiDg it. 

The Athenians were naturally obliging and agreeable; 

they were cheerful among each other, and humane to 

their inferiors. 
I hope it is not me thou art displeased with. 
I never before saw such large trees. 
My paper is Ulysses his bow, in which every man of wit 

and learning may try his strength. 

'Twas thee, whom once Stagy ra's grove 
Oft with her sage allur'd to rove. 
I could not observe by what gradations other men proceed™ 

ed in their acquainting themselves with truth. 
I will show you the way how it is done. 
Imprinting, if it signify any thing, is nothing else but the 

making certain truths to be perceived. 
This arose from the young man associating with bad people. 
Him that never thinks, never can be wise. 
It was John's the Baptist head that was cut off. 
The Jews are Abraham's, Isaac's, and Jacob's posterity. 
Two architects were once candidates for the buildings 

certain temple at Athens. 
This treatise is extreme elaborate. 
Them descending the ladder fell. 

The scaling lad<ier of sugared words, are set against them. 
One or both was there. 
What sort of an animal is that? 
These things should be never separated. 
His excuse was admitted of by his master. 
It is not me that he is engaged with. 
I intended to have rewarded him according to his merits. 
18 * 



198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

They would become sooner proficients in Latin. 

There is many different opinions concerning it. 

There are many in town richer than her. 

Let you and I be as little at variance as possible. 

A coalman, by waking of one of these gentlemen, saved him 

from ten years imprisonment. 
If a man's temper was at his own disposal, he would not 

choose to be of either of these parties. 

The birds their notes renew, and bleating herds 
Attest their joy, that hill and valley rings. 

EXERCISE XII —PROMISCUOUS. 

But we of the nations beg leave to differ with them. 
This is so easy and trivial, as it is a shame to mention it. 
You was once quite blind ; you neither saw your disease 
or your remedy. 

Fluttering his pennons vain, plumb down he drops 

Ten thousand fathom deep. 
The properties of the mirror depends on reflected light. 
Was you present at the last meeting? 
Hence has arisen much stiffness and affectation. 
The uatiou are powerful both by sea and land. 
Those set of books was a valuable present. 
The box contained forty piece of muslin. 
She is much the taller of the three. 
They are both remarkable tall men. 
A mans manners may be pleasing, whose morals are bad. 
True politeness has it's seat in the heart. 
He presented him a humble petition. 
I do not intend to turn a critic on this occasion. 
At first sight, we took it to be they. 
The certificate was wrote on parchment. 
I have often swam across the river. 
I have written four long letters yesterday. 
I expected to have seen you last week, but I was disappointed. 
We are besat by dangers on all sides. 
My father an;! him were very intimate. 
Unless he acts prudently, he will not succeed. 
It was no sooner said but done. 
Let neither partiality or prejudice appear. 
The obligation was ceased long before. 
How exquisite!}' is this all performed in Greek: 



SYNTAX. 199 

Who, when they came to mount Ephrairo, to the house of 

Micah, they lodged there. 
I prevailed with your father to consent. 
Always act as justice and honour requires. 
Them that trausgress the rules will be punished. 
With him rs wisdom and strength. 
My conductor answered, that it was him. 

Be thou, O lovely isle ! forever true, 

To him, who more than faithful was to you. 

The joys of love, are they not doubly thine, 

Ye poor! whose health, whose spirits ne'er declinei 

EXERCISE Xlir.— PROMISCUOUS. 

Having once suffered the disgrace, it is felt no longer 

The meanness or the sin will scarce be dissuasives. 

Both temper and distemper consists of contraries. 

Which is the cause, the writer or the reader's vanity. 

The commission of a generalissimo was also given him. 

The qaeen's kindred is styled gentlefolks. 

They agree as to the fact, but differ in assigning of reasons. 

Their love, and their hatred, and their envy, is now perished 

The inquiry is worthy the attention of every scholar. 

Young twigs are easier bent than boughs. 

It is not improbable but there are more attractive powers. 

By this means, an universal fermeut was excited. 

Who were utterly unable to pronouuce some letters, aud 

others very indistinctly. 
All vessels on board of which any person has been sick 

or died, perform quarantine. 
Severus forbid his subjects to change their religion for 

that of the Christian or Jewish. 
Magnus, with four thousand of his supposed accomplices, 

were put to death without a trial. 
Art not thou that Egyptian which before these days madest 

an uproar, aud leddest out into the wilderness tour thou- 
sand men that were murderers ? 
Attempting to deceive children into instruction of this kind, 

is only deceiving ourselves. 
A woman, having an alabaster box of ointment, brake and 

poured it on his head. 
My essays, of all my other works, are the most current 



200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

"W e would suggest the importance of every member, indi- 
vidually, using his influence. 

Thy sumptuous buildings, and thy wife's attire, 
Hath cost a mass of public treasure. 

EXERCISE XIV.— PROMISCUOUS. 

This people who knoweth not the law, are cursed. 
The people shall be forgiven their iniquity. 
Having been denied the favours which they were promised. 
Rosaline, this favour thou shalt wear; 
Hold, take you this, my sweet, and give me thioe. 
Rely not on any man's fidelity, who is unfaithful to God. 
The rules are full as concise, and more clear than before. 
For they knew all that his father was a Greek. 
Thrice was Caesar offered the crown. 
For a mine undiscovered, neither the owner of the ground, 

or any body else, are ever the richer. 
Death may be sudden to him, though it comes by never 

so slow degrees. 
A brute or a man are an other thing when they are alive, 

from what they are when dead. —Hale. 
I have known the having confessed inability, become the 

occasion of confirmed impotence. 
I am exceeding joyful in all our tribulation. 
If so much power, wisdom, goodness, and magnificence, is 

displayed in the material creation, which is the least 

considerable part of the universe; how great, how wise, 

how good must he be, who made and governs the whole* 
A good poet no sooner communicates his works, but it is 

imagined he is a vain young creature, given up to the 

ambition of fame. 
This was a tax upon himself for the not executing the laws. 
O my people, that dwellest in Zion! be not afraid. 
As rushing out-of doors, to be resolved, 
If Brutus so unkindly knock'd or no. 
His wrath, which one day will destroy ye both. 

I know thee not — nor ever saw, till now, 
Sight more detestable than him and thee. 
The season when to come, and when to go,. 
To sing, or cease to sing, we never know, 



PROSODY, 201 



PART IV* 



Prosody treats of punctuation, utterance, figures, 
and versification. 

PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing composition, by 
points, or stops, for the purpose of showing more 
clearly the sense and relation of the words, and of 
noting the different pauses and inflections required 
in reading. 

The following are the principal points, or marks; 
the Comma [,], the Semicolon [;], the Colon [:], the 
Period [.], the Dash [ — ], the Note of Interrogation 
[?], the Note of Exclamation [!], and the Paren- 
thesis [()]. 

Oes. — The pauses that are made in the natural flow of speech, 
have, in reality, no definite and invariable proportions. The fol- 
lowing, however, may serve as a general direction. 

The Comma denotes the shortest pause; the Semi- 
colon, a pause double that of the comma ; the Colon, 
a pause double that of the semicolon ; and (he Period, 
or Full Stop, a pause double that of the colon. The 
pauses required by the other marks, vary, according 
to the structure of the sentence, and their place in it. 
They may be equal to any of the foregoing. 

OF THE COMMA. 

The Comma is used to separate those parts of a 
sentence, which are so nearly connected in sense, as 
to be only one degree removed from that close con- 
nexion which admits no point. 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULE I. 

A simple sentence does not, in general admit the comma; 
as, " The weakest reasoners are the most positive." 

Exception. When the nominative in a long simple sen- 
tence, is accompanied by inseparable adjuncts, a comma 
should be placed before the verb; as, " The assemblage of 
these vast bodies, is divided into different systems." 

RULE Ii. 

The simple members of a compound sentence, whether 
successive or involved, elliptical or complete s are generally 
divided by the comma; as, 

" He speaks eloquently, and he acts wisely." 

" The man, when he saw this, departed." 

" It may, and it often does happen." 

" That life is long, which answers life's great end." 

"As thy days, so shall thy strength be." 

Exception 1. When a relative immediately follows its 
antecedent, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma 
should not be introduced before it; as, "The things which 
are seen, are temporal : but the things which are not seen, 
are eternal." 

Exception 2. When the simple members are short, and 
closely connected by a conjunction or a conjunctive ad- 
verb, the comma is generally omitted; as, " It is worse 
than death" — •' Let him tell me whether the number of the 
stars be even or odd." 

RULE III. 

When more than two words or phrases are connected in 
the same construction, by conjunctions expressed or un- 
derstood, the comma should be inserted after every one 
of them but the last; and if they are nominatives before 
a verb, the comma should follow the last also : as, 

" Who, to the enraptur'd heart, and ear, and eye, 

Teach beauty, virtue, truth, and love, and melody." 

"Ah! what avails ****** 

All that art, fortune, enterprise, can bring, 

If envy, scorn, remorse, or pride, the bosom wring ?'* 



PROSODY. 203 

''Women are soft, mild, pitiful, and flexible; 
Thou, stern, obdurate, flinty, rough, remorseless." 

" She plans, provides, expatiates, triumphs there." 

Obs. — Two or more words are in the same construction, when 
they have a common dependence on some other term, 

RULE IV. 

When only two words or phrases are connected by a 
conjunction, they should not be separated by the comma ; 
as, " Despair and anguish fled." 

Exception 1. When the two words connected have sev- 
eral adjuncts, the comma is inserted ; as, " Honesty in his 
dealings, and attention to business, procured him both es- 
teem and wealth." 

Exception 2. When the two words connected are em- 
phatically distinguished, the comma is inserted ; as, 

"Liberal, not lavish, is kind Nature's hand." 
" 'Tis certain he could write, and cipher too." 

Exception 3. When there is merely an alternative of 
words, the comma is inserted ; as, " We saw a large open- 
ing, or inlet." 

Exception 4. When the conjunction is understood, the 
comma is inserted ; as, 

" She thought the isle that gave her birth, 
The sweetest, wildest land on earth." 

rule v. 

When successsive words are joined in pairs by conjunc- 
tions, they should be separated in pairs by the comma ; 
as, " Interest and ambition, honour and shame, friendship 
and enmity, gratitude and revenge, are the prime movers 
in public transactions." 

RULE VI. 

Words put absolute, should, with their adjuncts, be set 
off by the comma; as, "The prince, his father being dead, 
succeeded." — " This done, we parted." — " His prwtorship 
in Sicily, what did it produce ?" 



204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULE VII. 

Words put in apposition, (especially if they have ad- 
juncts,) are generally set off by the comma; as, " He that 
now calls upon thee, is Theodore, the hermit of Tencriffe." 

Exception 1 . When several words are used as one 
compound name, the comma is not inserted ; as, " Samuel 
Johnson" — " Publius Gavius Cosanus." 

Exception 2 Wheu a common and a proper name 
are closely united, the comma is not inserted ; as, kl The 
brook Kidron" — " The river Don'' — " The empress Cath- 
arine ,, — " Paul the apostle." 

Exception 3. When a pronoun is added to an other 
word, merely for emphasis and distinction, the comma is 
not inserted; as, "Ye men of Athens" — " I myself" — 
" Thou flaming minister" — " You princes." 

Exception 4. When a name acquired by some action or 
relation, is put in apposition with a preceding noun or pro- 
noun, the comma is not inserted; as, "I made the ground 
my bed" — " To make him king" — " Whom they revered 
as God" — ** With modesty thy guide" 

RULE VIII. 

Adjectives, when somethiug depends on them, or when 
they have the import of a dependent clause, should with 
their adjuncts, be set off by the comma ; as, 

" Among the roots 

Of hazel, pendent o'er the plaintive stream, 
They frame the first foundation of their domes." 

" Up springs the lark, 

Shrill-voiced, and loud, the messenger of morn." 

Exception. When an adjective immediately follows its 
noun, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should 
not be used ; as, 

" On the coast averse from entrance" 

RULE IX, 

Where a verb is understood, a comma is generally re- 
quired : as, " From law arises security; from security, 
curiosity ; from curiosity, knowledge." 



PROSODY. 205 



RULE X. 

The infinitive mood, when it follows a verb from which 
it must be separated, or when it depends on something 
remote or understood, is generally set off by the comma; 
as, " His delight was, to assist the distressed." — " To con- 
clude, I was reduced to beggary." 

" The Governor of all — has interposed, 
Not seldom, his avenging arm, to smite 
The injurious trampler upon nature's law." 

RULE XI. 

Participles, when something depends on them, when they 
have the import of a dependent clause, or when they re- 
late to something understood, should, with their adjuncts, 
be set off by the comma; as, 

" Young Edwin, lighted by the evening star, 
Lingering and listening, wander'd down the vale." 

" United, we stand ; divided, we fall." 

« Properly speaking, there is no such thing as chance." 

Exception. When a participle immediately follows its 
noun, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should 
not be used before it ; as, 

" A man renowned for repartee, 
Will seldom scruple to make free 
With friendship's finest feeling." 

RULE XII. 

Adverbs, when they break the connexion of a simple 
sentence, or when they have not a close connexion with 
some particular word in the context, should be set off by 
the comma; as, "We must not, however, confound this 
gentleness with the artificial courtesy of the world." — 
" Besides, the miud must be employed." — " Most unques- 
tionably, no fraud was equal to all this." 

RULE XIII. 

Conjunctions, when they are separated from the princi- 
pal clause that depends on them, or when they introduce 
an example, are generally set off by the comma ; as, " But 
19 



206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

by a timely call upon Religion, the force of Habit w&s 
eluded." 

RULE XIV. 

Prepositions and their objects, when they break the 
connexion of a simple sentence, or when they do not closely 
follow the words on which they depend, are generally set 
off by the comma; as, "Fashion is, for the most part, 
nothing but the ostentation of riches." — " By reading, we 
add the experience of others to our own." 

RULE xv. 

Interjections are sometimes set off by the comma; as, 
" For, lo, I will call all the families of the kingdoms of the 
north." 

RULE XVI. 

A word emphatically repeated, should be set off by the 
comma; as, " Happy, happy, happy pair !" — " Ah ! no, 
no, no." 

RULE XVII. 

A quotation or observation, when it is introduced by a 
verb, (as say, reply, and the like,) is generally separated 
from the rest of the sentence by the comma; as, "'The 
book of nature,' said he, 'is open before thee.' " — "I say 
unto all, Watch." 

OF THE SEMICOLON. 

The Semicolon is used to separate those parts of 
a compound sentence, which are neither so closely 
connected as those which are distinguished by the 
comma, nor so little dependent as those which re- 
quire the colon. 

RULE I. 

When several compound members, some or all of which 
require the comma, are constructed into a period, they are 



PROSODY. . 207 

generally separated by the semicolon : as, " In the regions 
inhabited by angelic natures, unmingled felicity forever 
blooms; joy flows there with a perpetual and abundant 
stream, nor needs any mound to check its course." 

RULE II. 

When several simple members, each of which is com- 
plete in sense, are constructed into a period; if they re- 
quire a pause greater than that of the comma, they are 
usually separated by the semicolon: as, "Straws swim 
upon the surface ; but pearls lie at the bottom/' 

" A longer care man's helpless kind demands; 
That longer care contracts more lasting bands." 

RULE III. 

"Words in apposition, or in any other construction, if 
they require a pause greater than that of the comma, and 
less than that of the colon, may be separated by the semi- 
colon : as, "There are live moods; the infinitive, the in- 
dicative, the potential, the subjunctive, and the impera- 
tive," 

OF THE COLON. 

The Colon is used to separate those parts of a 
compound sentence, which are neither so closely 
connected as those which are distinguished by the 
semicolon, nor so little dependent as those which re- 
quire the period. 

RULE I. 

When the preceding clause is complete in itself, but is 
followed by some additional remark or illustration, the co- 
loo is generally used: as, " Avoid evil doers: in such so* 
ciety an honest man may become ashamed of himself." — 
"See that moth fluttering incessantly round the candle: 
man of pleasure, behold thy image!" 

rule ir. 

When the semicolon has been introduced, and a still 
greater pause is required within the period, the colon 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

should be employed : as, " Princes have courtiers, and 
merchants have partners; the voluptuous have com- 
panions, and the wicked have accomplices: none but the 
virtuous can have friends." 

rule in. 

A quotation introduced without dependence on a verb 
or a conjunction, is generally preceded by the colon: as, 
"In his last moments, he uttered these words: 'I fall a 
sacrifice to sloth and luxury. 9 " 

OF THE PERIOD. 

The Period, or Full Stop, is used to mark an en- 
tire and independent sentence, whether simple or 
compound. 

RULE I. 

When a sentence is complete in respect to sense, and in- 
dependent in respect to construction, it should be marked 
with the period : as, " Every deviation from truth, is crimi- 
nal. Abhor a falsehood. Let your words be ingenuous. 
Sincerity possesses the most powerful charm." 

RULE II. 

The period is often employed between two sentences 
which have a general connexion, expressed by a personal 
pronoun, a conjunction, or a conjunctive adverb ; as, "The 
selfish man languishes in his narrow circle of pleasures. 
They are confined to what affects his own interests. He 
is obliged to repeat the same grati(ications,till they become 
insipid. But the man of virtuous sensibility moves in a 
wider sphere of felicity." 

RULE HI. 

The period is generally used after abbreviations ; as, 
A. D., Pro tem., Ult., i. e. 

OF THE DASH. 

The Dash is used to denote an unexpected pause, 
of variable length* 



fcROSODY. 209 



RULE I, 

A sudden interruption or transition should be marked 
with the dash ; as, " * I must inquire into the affair, and 
?i' — 'And if? interrupted the farmer." 

" Here lies the great — false marble, where ? 
Nothing but sordid dust lies here." 

RULE II. 

To mark a considerable pause, greater than the struc- 
ture of the sentence, or the points inserted, would seem to 
require, the dash may be employed ; as, 

" And now they part — to meet no more." 

" Revere thyself; — and yet thyself despise." 

M Behold the picture ! — Is it like ? — Like whom ?" 

OF THE NOTE OF INTERROGATION. 

The Note of Interrogation is used to designate a 
question, 

rule i-. 

Questions, expressed directly as such, should always he 
followed by the note of interrogation; as, 

" In life, can love be bought with gold ? 
Are friendship's pleasures to be sold ?" 

rule II. 

When two or more questions are united id one compound 
sentence, the comma or semicolon is sometimes placed be- 
tween them, and the note of interrogation, after the last on- 

*y; as, . 

" Truths would you teach, or save a sinking land 1 
All fear, none aid you, and few understand*" 

RULE III. 

When a question is mentioned, but not put directly as 
a question, it loses both the quality and the sign of interro- 
gation ; as, " The Cyprians asked me why I wept" 

19* 



210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

OF THE NOTE OF EXCLAMATION. 

The Note of Exclamation is used to denote some 
strong or sudden emotion of the mind. 

RULE I. 

Interjections and other expressions of great emotion, are 
generally followed by the note of exclamation ; as,* 

" O ! let me listen to the words of life P* 

RULE II. 

After an earnest address, or invocation, the note of ex* 
damation is preferred to the comma ; as, " Whereupon, O 
king Agrippa 1 1 was not disobedient to the heavenly vision." 

RULE III. 

^» 
A question uttered with vehemence, and without refer* 
enceto an answer, should be followed by the note ofexcla* 
mation; as, " How madly have I talked !" 

OF THE PARENTHESIS. 

The Parenthesis is used to distinguish a clause 
that is hastily thrown in between the parts of a sen- 
tence to which it does not properly belong ; as, 

" To others do (the law is not severe) 

What to thyself thou wishest to be done." 
The incidental clause should be uttered in a lower tone, 
and faster, than the principal sentence. It always requires 
a pause as great as that of a comma, or greater. 

RULE I. 

A clause that breaks the unity of a sentence too much to 
be incorporated xvith it, and only such, should be enclosed 
In a parenthesis ; as, 

" Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
Virtue alone is happiness below*'* 



PROSODV. 211 

RULE II. 

The parenthesis does not supersede the other stops : it 
terminates with a pause equal to that which precedes it; 
and it should include the same point, except when the sen- 
tences differ in form : as, 

" Man's thirst of happiness declares it is : 
(For nature never gravitates to nought :) 
That thirst unquench'd, declares it is not here." 

" Night visions may befriend : (as sung above :) 
Our waking dreams are fatal. — How I dreamt 
Of things impossible! (could sleep do more?) 
Of joys perpetual in perpetual change!" 

[O 3 For oral exercises in punctuation, the teacher may select 
any well-pointed book, to which the foregoing rules may be 
applied by the pupil.] 

OF THE OTHER MARKS 

There are also other marks, that are occasional! y 
used for various purposes, as follow? 

1 . ['] The Apostrophe* denotes either the possessive case 3 
or the elision of one or more letters of a word : as, The 
girVs regard to her parents* advice $~gan 9 lov'd, e'en 3 
thro*; for began, loved, even, through. 

2. [-] The Hyphen connects the parts of compound words; 
as, ever-living. Placed at the end of a line, it shows that 
one or more syllables of a word are carried forward to the 
next line. 

3. [••] The Diaeresis, placed over the latter of two 
vowels, shows that they are not a diphthong; as, aerial. 

4. [-] The Acute Accent marks the syllable which re- 
quires the principal stress in pronunciation; as, equals 
equaVily. It is sometimes used, in opposition to the grave 
Accent, to distinguish a close vowel, or to denote the rising 
inflection of the voice. 

5. [ N ] The Grave Accent is used, in opposition to the 
acute, to distinguish an open vowel, or to denote the falling 
inflection of the voice. 

6. [ A ] The Circumflex generally denotes the broad sound 
of a vowel; as* eclat. 



212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

7. [ w ] The Breve is used to denote either a close voweSj 
©r a syllable of short quantity. 

8. p] The Macron is used to denote either an open 
vowel, or a syllable of long quantity. 

9. [ ] or [****] The Ellipsis denotes the omission 

©f some letters or words; as, K — g, for king. 

10. [a] The Caret shows where to insert words or letters 
that have been accidentally omitted. 

11. [ j ] The Brace serves to unite a triplet, or to connect 
several terms with something to which they are all related. 

12. [§] The Section marks the smaller divisions of a 
book or chapter. 

13. [If] The Paragraph (chiefly used in the Bible) de- 
notes the commencement of a new subject. The parts of 
discourse, which are called paragraphs, are, in general, 
sufficiently distinguished, by beginning a new line, and car- 
rying the first word a little forwards or backwards. 

14. [""] The Quotation Points distinguish words that 
are taken from an other author or speaker. A. quotation 
within a quotation is marked with single points; which, 
when both are employed, are placed within the others. 

15. [(]] The Crotchets generally enclose some correc- 
tion or explanation, or the subject to be explained; as, "He 
[the speaker] was of a different opinion." 

16. [CC7 3 ] The Index points out something remarkable. 

1 7. [*] The Asterisk, [f] the Obelisk, and [||] the Par- 
allels, refer to marginal notes. The letters of the alphabet 
or the numerical figures, may be used for the same pur- 
pose. 

UTTERANCE. 

Utterance is the art of vocal expression. It in- 
cludes the principles of pronunciation and elocution* 

OF PRONUNCIATION. 

Pronunciation, as distinguished from elocution, is 
the utterance of words taken separately. 

Pronunciation requires a knowledge of the just 
powers of the letters in all their combinations) and of 
the force and seat of the accent* 



PROSODY 



213 



Accent is the peculiar stress which we lay upon some 
particular syllable of a word, whereby that syllable is dis- 
tinguished from the rest; as, grammar, gram^nd-naii. ^ 

Every word of more than one syllable, has one 01 its 
syllables accented. When the word is long, for the sake 
of harmony or distinctness, we often give a secondary, or 
less forcible accent to an other syllable; as, to the last ot 
tem-pcr-a-ture, and to the second of indem-ni-fi-ca hon. 

A full and open pronunciation of the long vowel sounds, 
a clear articulation of the consonants, a forcible and well- 
placed accent, and a distinct utterance of the unaccented 
syllables, distinguish the elegant speaker. 

[ITFFor a full explanation of the principles of pronunciation, the 
learner is referred to Walker's Critical Pronouncing Dictionary.] 

OF ELOCUTION, 

Elocution is the utterance of words that are ar* 
ranged into sentences, and form discourse. 

Elocution requires a knowledge, and right applica- 
tion, of emphasis, pauses, inflections, and tones. 

Emphasis is the peculiar stress which we lay upon some 
particular word or words in a seutence, which are thereby 
distinguished from the rest. 

Pauses are cessations in utterance, which serve equally 
to relieve the speaker, and to render language intelligible 
and pleasing. The duration of the pauses should be pro- 
portionate to the degree of conuexion between the parts oi 
the discourse. 

Inflections are those peculiar variations of the human 
voice, by which a continuous sound is made to pass from 
one note into an other. The passage of the voice from a 
lower to a higher or shriller note, is called the rising in- 
flection. The passage of the voice from a higher to a lower 
or graver note, is called the falling inflection. These 
two opposite inflections may be heard in the following 
examples: 1. the rising, "Do you mean to go?" 2, the 
falling, " When will you gd ?" 



214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Obs. — Questions that may be answered by yes or no, require the 
rising inflection; those that demand any other answer, must be ut- 
tered with the falling inflection. 

Tones are those modulations of the voice, which depend 
upon the feelings of the speaker. And it is of the utmost 
importance, that they be natural, and adapted to the sub- 
ject and to the occasion: for upon them, in a great measure, 
depends all that is pleasing or interesting in elocution. 



FIGURES. 

A Figure, in grammar, is an intentional deviation 
from the ordinary form, construction, or application, 
of words. There are, accordingly, figures of Ety- 
mology, figures of Syntax, and figures of Rhetoric. 
When figures are judiciously employed, they both 
strengthen and adorn expression. They occur more 
frequently in poetry than in prose ; and several of 
them are merely poetic licenses. 

FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. 



A Figure of Etymology is an intentional deviation from 
-the ordinary form of a word. The principal figures of ety- 
mology are eight," namely, Aphceresis, Prosthesis, Syncope, 
Apocope, Paragoge, Diaeresis, Synceresis, and Tmesis. 

I. Aphceresis is the elision of some of the initial letters 
of a word ; as, 'gainst, 'goal, 9 neath, — for against, began 
beneath. 

II. Prosthesis is the prefixing of an expletive syllable 
to a word; as, adown, appaid, fostrown, evanished, — for 
down, paid, strown, vanished. 

III. Syncopt is the elision of some of the middle letters 
of a word; as, medicine, for medicine ; se'nnight, for seven- 
night, 

IV. Apocope* is the elision of some of the final letters of a 
word ; as, tho\ for though. 

V. Paragog^ is the annexing of an expletive sylla- 
ble to a word; as, withoMten, for without, 



PROSODY' 215 

VI. Diaeresis is the separating of two vowels that might 
form a diphthong; as, cooperate. 

VII. Synozresis is the sinking of two syllables into one; 
as, seest, Tor seest. 

Obs. — When a vowel is entirely suppressed in pronunciation, 
(whether retained in writing or not,) the consonants connected 
with it, fall into an other syllable : thus, tried, triest, loved or lov'd, 
lovest or lov'st, are monosyllables ; except in solemn discourse, in 
which the e is made vocal. 

VIII. Tmesis is the inserting of a word between the 
parts of a compound ; as, " On which side soever"- — " Ta 
us ward," — " To God ward." 

FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 

A figure of Syntax is an intentional deviation from the 
ordinary construction of words. The principal figures of 
Syntax are five ; namely, Ellipsis, Pleonasm, Syllepsis, 
Enallage, and Hyperbaton. 

I. Ellipsis is the omission of some words which are ne- 
cessary to complete the construction, but not, to convey the 
meaning. 

Almost all compound sentences are more or less ellipti- 
cal. There may be an ellipsis of any of the parts of 
speech, or even of a whole clause : as, 

1. Of the Article; as, "A man and [a] woman." — "The 
day, [the] month, and [the] year." 

2. Of the Noun; as, " The common [law] and the stat- 
ute law."—" The twelve [apostles]."—" One [book] of 
my books." — " A dozen [bottles] of wine." 

3. Of the Adjective ; as, " A little boy and [a little] 
girl " — " Much trouble aud [much] time." 

4. Of the Pronoun ; as, "I love [him] and [I] fear him." 
" The estates [which] we own." 

5. Of the Verb ; as, "Who did this ? I" [did it].— "To 
whom thus Eve, yet sinless" [spoke]. 

6. Of the Participle ; as, "That [being] o'er, they 
part." 

7. Of the Adverb ; as, " He spoke [wisely] and acted 
wisely." — " Exceedingly great aud [exceedingly] power- 
full." 

8 Of the Conjunction ; as, " The fruit of the Spirit is 
love, [and] joy, [and] peace, [and] long-suffeiing, [and] 



216 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

gentleness, [and] goodness, [and] faith, [and] meekness, 
[and] temperance." The repetition of the conjunction is 
called Polysyndeton ; and the omission of it, Asyndeton. 

9. Of the Preposition ; as, " [On] this day.' --" [In] 
next month.' 1 — " He departed [from] this life." — " He 
gave [to] me a book." — " To walk [through] a mile." 

10. Of the Interjection ; as, "Oh! the frailty, [Oh!] 
the wickedness of men !" 

11. Of a Clause ; as, " It is our duty to show respect to 
the virtuous, and [it is our duty to show] deference to our 
superiors." 

II. Pleonasm, is the introduction of superfluous words. 
This figure is allowable only, when, in animated discourse, 
it abruptly introduces an emphatic word, or repeats an 
idea to impress it more strongly ; as, " He that hath ears to 
hear, let him hear!" — " All ye inhabitants of the world, 
and dwellers on the earth!" — " There shall not be left one 
stone upon an other that shall not be thrown down."—" I 
know thee who thou art." A Pleonasm is sometimes im- 
pressive and elegant ; but an unemphatic repetition of the 
same idea, is one of the worst faults of bad writing. 

HI. Syllepsis is agreement formed according to the fig- 
urative sense of a word, or the mental conception of the 
thing spoken of, and not according to the literal or common 
use of the term; it is therefore, in general, connected with 
some other figure : as, " The Word was made flesh, and 
dwelt among us, and we beheld his glory." — John i. 14. 
" Then Philip went down to the city of Samaria, and 
preached Christ unto them" — Acts viii. 5. " While Even- 
ing draws her crimson curtain round." — Thomson. 

IV. Enallage is the use of one part of speech, or of one 
modification, for an other.* This figure borders closely 
upon solecism. It is a licence sparingly indulged in po- 
etry ; but it is very seldom allowable in prose : as, 

" They fall successive [!y], and successive [\y] rise." 



* Deviations of this kind are, in general, to be considered solecisms; other- 
wise, the rules of grammar -would be of no use or authority Despauter, an an- 
cient. Latin grammarian, gave an improper latitude to this figure, under the name 
of Antiptosis ; and Bthourt and others extended it still further. But Sanciius 
says, Antiptosi grarnwiaticorum, nihil imperitius, quod figmenium si esset verum, 
frustra qutzreretur, quern casum verba regerent And the Messieurs foe Port Royal 
reject the figure altogether. There- are, however, some changes of this kind, 
which the grammarian is not competent to condemn, though they do not accord 
with the ordinary principles of construction . 



PROSODY. 



217 



" Than whom [who] none higher sat." 

" Sure some disaster has befell" [befallen]. 

" So furious was that onset's shock, 

Destruction's gates at once unlock" — Hogg. 

V. Hyperbaton is the transposition of words ; as, " He 
wanders earth around" — " Rings the world with the vain 
stir.'' This figure is much employed in poetry. A ju- 
dicious use of it confers harmony, variety, strength, and 
vivacity upon composition. But care should be taken 
lest it produce ambiguity or obscurity. 

FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

A Figure of Rhetoric is an intentional deviation from 
the ordinary application of words. Figures of this kind 
are commonly called Tropes. Numerous departures from 
perfect simplicity of diction, occur in almost every kind of 
composition They are mostly founded on some similitude 
or relation of things, which, by the power of imagination, 
is rendered conducive to ornament or illustration. The 
principal figures of rhetoric are fourteen ; uamely, Simile, 
Metaphor, Allegory, Metonymy, Synecdoche*, Hyperbole, 
Vision, Apostrophe, Personification, Erotesis, Ecphonesis, 
Antithesis, Climax, and Irony. 

t. A. Simile is a simple and express comparison ; and is 
generally introduced by like, as, or so : as, 

" At first, like thunders distant tone, 

The rattling din came roiling on, — Hogg. 

ct Man, like the generous vine, supported lives ; 

The strength he gains, is from th' embrace he gives." 

II. A Metaphor is a figure that expresses the resem- 
blance of two objects by applying either the name,or some 
attribute, adjuuet, or action, of the one, directly to the 
other; as, 

" His eye was morning's brightest ray." — Hogg. 

" An angler in the tides of fame." — Idem. 

ft Beside him sleeps the warrior's bow." — Langhorm. 



20 



218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" Wild fancies in his moody brain, 

Gamboled unbridled and unbound." — Hogg. 
" Speechless, and fix'd in all the death of wo." — Thorn, 

III. An Allegory is a continued narration of fictitious 
events, designed to represent and illustrate important re- 
alities. Thus the Psalmist represents the Jewish nation 
under the symbol of a vine: " Thou hast brought a vine 
out of Egypt : thou hast cast out the heathen and planted 
it. Thou preparedst room before it, and didst cause it to 
take deep root ; and it filled the land. The hills were cov- 
ered with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were 
like the goodly cedars." — Ps. Ixxx. 8. 

Obs. — -The Allegory, agreeably to the foregoing definition of it, 
includes most of those similitudes which in the scriptures are call- 
ed parables ; it includes also the better sort of fables. The term 
allegory is sometimes applied to a true history in which something 
else is intended, than is contained in the words literally taken. 
[See Gal iv. 24.] In Scripture, the term fable denotes an idle and 
groundless story. [See 1 Tim. iv. 1, and 2 Pet. i. 16.] 

IV. A Metonymy is a change of names. It is founded 
on some such relation as that of cause and effect, of subject 
and adjunct, of place and inhabitant, of container and thing 
contained, or of sign and thing signified: as, " God is our 
salvation;" i. e. Saviour. — "The sigh of her secret soul ;" 
:i. e. the youth she loved.-—" They smote the city /' i. e. 
citizens. — " My son, give me thy heart;" i e. affection. — - 
" The sceptre shall not depart from Judah ;" i. e. kingly 
power. 

V. Synecdoche is the naming of the whole for a part, or 
of a part for the whole; as, " This roof [i. e. house] pro- 
tects you." — " Now the year [i. e. summer] is beautiful." 

VI. HyperboU is extravagant exaggeration, in which 
the imagination is indulged beyond the sobriety of truth ; 
as, 

^ The sky shrunk upward with unusual dread, 

And trembling Tiber div'd beneath his bed" Dry den. 

VII. Vision, or Imagery, is a figure by which the 
speaker represents the objects of his imagination, as actual- 



PROSODY. 219 

ry before his eyes and present to his senses ; as, 

" I see the dagger-crest of Mar ! 
I see the Moray's silver star 
Wave o'er the cloud of Saxon Avar, 
That up the lake comes winding far !" — Scott. 

VIIT. Apostrophe is a turning from the regular course of 
die subject, into an animated address; as, "Death is swal- 
lowed up in victory. O Death ! where is thy sting ? O 
Grave ! where is thy victory ?" — 1 Cor. xv. 54, 55. 

IX. Personification is a figure by which, in imagination, 
we ascribe intelligence and personality to unintelligent be- 
ings or abstract qualities; as, 

" The Worm, aware of his intent, 

Harangued him thus, right eloquent." — Cowpcr. 

" Lo,steel-clad War his gorgeous standard rears!" Reg. 

" Hark ! Truth proclaims, thy triumphs cease." — Id. 

X. Erotesis is a figure in which the speaker adopts the 
form of interrogation, not to express a doubt, but, in gene- 
ral, confidently to assert the reverse of what is asked; as, 
"Hast thou an arm like God ? or canst thou thunder with 
with a voice like him ?" — Job xl. 9. "He that planted 
the ear, shall he not hear ? He that formed the eye, shall 
he not see ?" — Ps. xciv. 9. 

XI. Ecphonesis is a pathetic exclamation, denoting 
some violent emotion of the mind ; as, " O liberty ! — O 
sound once delightful to every Roman ear!-- -O sacred 
privilege of Roman citizenship ! — once sacred — now tramp- 
led upon !" — Cicero. " O that I had wings like a dove ! 
tor then would I fly away, and be at rest !" — Ps. Xv. 6. 

XI f. Antithesis is a placing of things in opposition, to 
heighten their effect by contrast ; as, 

" Contrasted faults through ail their manners reign ; 
Though poor, luxurious ; though submissive, vain ; 
Though grave, yet trifling ; zealous, yet untrue ; 
And, e'en in penance, planning sins anew." — Golds. 

X1IF. Climax is a figure in which the sense is made to 
advance by successive steps, to rise gradually to what is 
more and more important and interesting, or to descend to 
what is more and more minute and particular j as, " And 



220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

besides this, giving all diligence, add to your faith, virtue; 
and to virtue, knowledge; and to knowledge, temperance; 
and to temperance, patience; and to patience, godliness; 
and to godliness, brotherly kindness; and to brotherly 
kindness, charity."— 2 Pet. i. 5. 

XIV. Irony is a figure in which the speaker sneer- 
sngly utters the direct reverse of what he intends shall be 
understood; as, "We have, to be sure, great reason to 
believe the modest man would not ask him for his debt, 
when he pursues his life." — Cicero. 



VERSIFICATION. 

Versification is the art of arranging words into 
lines of correspondent length, so as to produce har- 
mony by the regular alternation of syliables differing 
in quantity. 

The Quantity of a syllable, is the relative portion of 
time occupied in uttering it. In poetry, every syllable is 
considered to be either long or short. A long syllable is 
said to be equal to two short ones. The quantity of a 
syllable, does not depeud on the sound of the vowel or 
diphthong, but, principally, on the degree of accentual 
force with which the syllable is uttered, whereby a greater 
or less portion of time is employed. The open vowel 
sounds are those which are the most easily protracted, yet 
they often occur in the shortest and feeblest syllables. 
Most monosyllables are variable, and may be made either 
long or short, as suits the rhythm. In words of greater 
length, the accented syllable is always long; and a sylla- 
ble immediately before or after that which is accented, is 
always short. 

Rhyme is a similarity of sound, between the last sylla- 
bles of different lines. The principal rhyming syllables 
are almost always long. Double rhyme adds one sjiort 
syllable; triple rhyme, two. Such syllables are redun- 
dant, in iambic and anapaestic verses. 

Blank verse is verse without rhyme. 

A line of poetry consists of successive combinations of 



PROSODY. 



221 



syllables, called /irf. A poetic foot consists either of two 
or of three syllables. The principal English feet are the 
Iambus, the Trochee, the Anapaest, and the Dactyl. 

1. The Iambus consists oi a short syllable and a long 
one; as, betray, confess. 

2. The Trochee consists of a long syllable and a short 
one ; as hateful, pettish. 

3. The Anapcest consists of two short syllables and one 
•ong one; as, contravene, acquiesce. 

4. The Dactyl consists of one long syllable and two 
short ones ; as, labourer, possible. 

We have, accordingly, four kinds of Terse, or poetic 
measure; Iambic, Trochaic, Anapaestic, and Dactylic. The 
more pure these several kinds are preserved, the more 
complete is the chime of the verse. But poets generally 
indulge some variety ; not so much, however, as to con- 
found the drift of the rhythmical pulsations. 

Scanning is the dividing of verses into the feet which 
compose them. 

I. OF IAMBIC VERSE. 

In Iambic verse, the stress is laid on the even syllables-. 
It consists of the following measures. 

1. Iambic of Seven feet. 

The L5rd | descended from | above, | and bow'd | the 
heavjens high. 
Modern poets have divided this kind of verse, into al- 
ternate lines of four and of three feet: thus, 
O blind | to each | indu!|gent aim 

Of pow'r | supreme|ly wise, 
Who fanjcy hapjpiness | in aught 
The hand | of heav'o | denies 1 

2. Iambic of Six feet, or Hexameter. 

Thy realm | forev|er lasts, | thy own | Messi|ah reigns. 

This is the Alexandrine; it is seldom used except to 
complete a stanza in an ode, or occasionally to close a pe- 
riod in heroic rhyme. French heroics are similar to this. 

3. Iambic of Five feet, or Pentameter. 
For praise | too dearjiy lov'd | or warm|iy sought, 
Enfee|bles all | internal strength | of thought. 
20 * 



222 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

With soljemn ad|6ra[tion down | they cast 

Their crowDs | inwove | with anj|araut | and gold. 

This is the regular English heroic. It is, perhaps, the 
only measure suitable for blank verse. 

The Elegiac stanza consists of four heroics rhyming al- 
ternately ; as, 

Enough | has Heav'n | indulg'd | of joy | below, 

To tempt | our tar|riaGce in | this lov'd | retreat; 
Enough [ has Heav'n | ordain'd | of usejful wo, 
To make | us lang|uish for | a hap|pier seat. 

4. Iambic of Four feet. 

The joys | abSve | are understood 
And rel|ish'd on|ly by | the good. 

5. Iambic of Three feet. 

Blue light|'nings tinge | the wave. 
And thuD|der rends | the rock. 

6. Iambic of Two feet. 

Their love | and awe 
Supply | the law. 

7. Iambic of One foot 

How bright, 
The light ! 

The last three measures are seldom found, except in 
connexion with longer verses. 

In iambic verse, the first foot is often varied, by intro- 
ducing a trochee ; as, 

Planets | and suns j run law | less thrSugh | the sky. 

By a synaeresis of the two short syllables, an anapaest 
may sometimes be employed for an iambus; or a dactyl, for 
a trochee : as, O'er mh\ny & fro|zeo, ma|m/ ct f I|'ry alp. 

XL OF TROCHAIC VERSE. 

In Trochaic verse, the stress is laid on the odd syllables. 
Single-rhymed trochaic omits the final short syllable, that it 
sji ay eed with a long one* This kind of verse is the same 



PROSODY. 223 

as iambic without the initial short syllable. Iambics and 
trochaics often occur in the same poem. 

1 . Trochaic of Six feet. 

On a | mountain | stretch'd bejneath a | hoary | willow, 
Lay a | shepherd | swain, and | view'd the | rolling | billow. 

2. Trochaic of Five feet. 
Virtue's ) bright'ning | ray shall | beam for | ever. 

SiDgle rhyme. 

Idle | after | dinner | In his | chair, 
Sat a | farmer | ruddy | fat and | fair. 

3. Trochaic of Four feet. 

Round a, | holy ] calm diffusing, 
Love of | peace and | lonely J musing. 

Single rhyme. 

Restless | mdrtals | toil for | naught; 
Bliss in | vain from | earth is | sought. 

4. Trochaic of Three feet. 
When our | hearts are | mourning. 

Single rhyme. 

In the | days of | old, 
Stories | plainly ) told— 

5. Trochaic of Two feet. 

Fancy | viewing 
Joys en] suing. 

Single rhyme. 

Tumult | cease. 
Sink to | peace. 

6. Trochaic of One foot. 

Changing, 
Ranging. 

III. ANAPAESTIC VERSE, 

In Anapaestic verse the stress is laid on every third sylla* 
ble. The first foot of an anapaestic line, may be an iambus. 



224 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. Anapaestic of Four feet. 



At the close | of the da) 
And morltals the sweets 



when the hamjlet is still, 
of forgetjfulness prove. 



2. Anapaestic of Three feet. 

I am raon|arch of all | I survey ; 
My right | there is none | to dispute. 

3. Anapaestic of Two feet. 

When I look | on my boys, 
They renew | all my joys. 

4. Anapaestic of One foot. 

On the land 
Let me stand. 

IV. OF DACTYLIC VERSE. 

Id pure dactylic verse, the stress is laid on the first, 
the fourth, the seventh, and the tenth syllable. Full dac- 
tylic generally forms triple rhyme. When one of the final 
short syllables is emitted, the rhyme is double ; when 
both, single. Dactylic with single rhyme, is the same as 
anapaestic without its initial short syllables. Dactylic 
measure is uncommon; and, when employed, is seldom 
perfectly regular. 

1. Dactylic of Four feet. 

Boys will anticipate, | lavish and | dissipate 
All that your | busy pate | hoarded with | care; 

And, in their | foolishness, | passion, and | mulishness, 
Charge you with | churlishness, | spurning your jpray'r. 

2. Dactylic of Three feet. 
Ever sing | merrily, | merrily, 

3. Dactylic of Two feet. 

Free from sa|tiety^ 
Care, and anx|iety, 
Charms in variety, 
Fall to his | share. 

4. Dactylic of One foot. 

Fearfully, 
Tearfully. 



PROSODY. £25 



EXAMPLES FOR PARSING, 

(CHAPTER IX.) 

In which are exemplified the several Figures of Ety- 
mology, of Syntax , and of Rhetoric ; and in 
which the pupil may also be exercised in rela- 
tion to the principles of Punctuation, Utterance, 
and Versification, 



LESSON i. 
FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. 

Bend ''gainst the steepy hill thy breast, 
Burst down like torrent from its crest. — ScotL 

^Tis mine to teach th' inactive hand to reap 

Kind nature's bounties, o'er the globe diffus'd.—Bycr* 

Alas! alas! how impotent!} true 

T/t' aerial pencil foims the scene anew.— -Cawthorne* 

Here a deformed monster joy'd to wou, 
Which on fell rancour ever was yhenU— Lloyd. 

Withouten tromp was proclamation made.-*- Thomson. 

The gentle knight, who saw their rueful case, 

Let fall adown his silver beard some tears. 

* Certes,' quoth he, ' it is not e'en in grace, 

7" undo the past and eke jour broken years/ — Idem. 

Vain tampering has but foster'd his disease ; 

'Tis desperate, and he sleeps the sleep of death. — Cowper* 

I have a pain upon my forehead here— 

Why that's with watching ; 'twill away again.—- Shah. 

Til to the woods, among the happier brutes: 

Come, let's away ; hark ! the shrill horn resounds.— Smith, 

What prayer and supplication soever be made. — Bible. 

By the grace of God we have had our conversation io 
fhe world, and more abundantly to you ward. — Idem, 



226 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON II. 
FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 

I. And now he faintly kens the bounding fawn, 
And [ — ] villager abroad at early toil. — Beattie. 
The cottage curs at [ - ]early pilgrim bark. — Idem. 
? Tis granted, and no plainer truth appears, 
Our most important [ — ] are our earliest years. — Cowper. 
To earn her aid* with fix'd and anxious eye, 
He looks on nature's [ — ] and on fortune's course; 
Too much in vain. — Akenside. 

True dignity is his, whose tranquil mind 

Virtue has rais'd above the thiugs [ — ] below ; 

Who, ev'ry hope and [ — ~\ fear to Heav'n resign'd, 

Shrinks not, though Fortune aim her deadliest blow. 

For longer in that paradise to dwell, 

The law [ — ] I gave to nature, him forbids. — Milton, 

So little mercy shows [ — ] who needs so much. — Cowper. 

Bliss is the same in subject as in king, 

In [ — ] who obtain defence, and [ — ] who defend. — Pope . 

Man made for kings! those optics are but dim 

That tell you so — say rather, they [ — ] for him. — Cowp. 

Man may dismiss compassion from his heart, 
But God will never [ ]. — Idem. 

Mortals whose pleasures are their only care, 

First wish to be impos'd on, and then are [ — ]. — Idem. 

Vigour[ — ]from toil, from trouble patience grows. — Beat. 

Where now the rill, melodious, [--] pure, and cool, 
And meads, with life, aud mirth, and beauty crown'd ? 

How dead the vegetable kingdom lies! 

How dumb the tuneful [ ] ! — Thomson. 

Self-love and Reason to one end aspire, 

Pain [ — ] their aversion, pleasure [ — ] their desire ; 

But greedy that its object would devour, 

This [ — ] taste the hooey, and not wound the flower. 



PROSODY. 227 

LESSON III. 

2. According to their deeds, accordingly he will repay, 
fury to his adversaries, recompense to his enemies. — Bible. 

My head is filled with dew, and my locks with the 
drops of the ?iight. — Idem. 

Thou hast chastised me, and I was chastised, as a bullock 
unaccustomed to the yoke: turn thou me, and I shall be 
turned; for thou art the Lord my God. — Idem. 

Consider the lilies of the field how they grow —Idem. 
He that glorieth, let him glory in the Lord.— Idem. 
He too is witness, noblest of the train 
That wait on man, the flight-performing horse.— Cowper. 

3. Thou art Simon the son of Jona: thou shalt be called 
Cephas ; which is, by interpretation, a stone.— Bible. 

Thus saith the Lord of hosts: 'Behold I will break the 
bow of Elam, the chief of their might.— Idem. 

Behold I lay in Zion a stumbling-stone and rock of 
offence; and whosoever believeth on him shall not be 
ashamed. — Idem. 

Thus Conscience pleads her cause within the breast, 
Though long rebell'd against, not yet suppressed. — Cowp, 
Knowledge is proud that he has learn'd so much ; 
Wisdom is humble that he knows no more. — Idem. 
For those the race of Israel oft forsook 
Their living strength, and unfrequented left 
His righteous altar, bowing lowly down 
To bestial gods. — Milton. 



LESSON IV. 

4. Come Philomelus; let us instant go, 

O'erturn his bow'rs, and lay his castle low. — Thomsm. 

Then palaces shall rise; the joyful son 

Shall finish what the shortlived sire begun.— Pope. 

Such was that temple built by Solomon, 

Than whom none richer reign'd o'er Israel. 

He spoke : with fatal eagerness we burn, 

And quit the shores, uudestin'd to return. — Day, 



228 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Still as he pass'd, the nations he sublimes Thomson. 

Sometimes, with early morn, he mounted gay. — Idem. 

5, Such resting found the sole of unblest feet. — Milton. 

Yet, though successless, will the toil delight. — Thomson. 

Where, 'midst the changeful sceo'ry ever new, 
Fancy a thousand wondrous forms descries. — Beattie. 

Yet so much bounty is in God, such grace, 
That who advance his glory, not their own, 
Them he himself to glory will advance. — Milton. 

But apt the mind or fancy is to rove 
Uncheck'd, and of her roving is no end. — Idem. 

]N"o quick reply to dubious questions make; 
Suspense and caution still prevent mistake.— Denhafn. 

LESSON V. 
FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

1. Human greatness is short and transitory, as the odour 
of incense in the fire. — Dr. Johnson. 

Terrestrial happiness is of short continuance : the bright- 
ness of the flame is wasting its fuel, the fragrant flower 
is passing away in its own odours.— Idem. 

Thy nod is as the earthquake that shakes the moun- 
tains ; and thy smile, as the dawn of the vernal day. — Id. 

Plants raised with tenderness are seldom strong ; 
Man's coltish disposition asks the thong; 
And, without discipline, the fav'rite child, 
Like a neglected forester, runs wild.— Cowper. 

2. Cathmon, thy name is a pleasant gale.—Ossian. 
Rolled into himself he flew, wide on the bosom of winds. 

The old oak felt his departure, and shook its whistling 
head.— Idem. 

Carazan gradually lost the inclination to do good, as he 
acquired the power; and as the hand of time scattered 
snow upon his head, the freezing influence extended to his 
bosom. — Hawkesworth. 

The sun grew wrary of gilding the palaces of Morad; 
the clouds of sorrow gathered round his head ; and the tem~ 
pest of haired roared about his dwelling. — Johnson. 



PROSODY. 229 

The tree of knowledge, blasted by disputes, 
Produces sapless leaves in stead of fruits.— Denham. 

LESSON VI. 
3. But what think ye? A certain man had two sons: 
ano he came to the first, and said, 'Sod, go work to-day 
in my vineyard. 5 He answered and said, 'I will not:' but 
afterward he repented, and went. And he came to the 
secondhand said likewise. And he answered and said, 

Jiff t r V -^ 7 e S. n0t * Wh6ther of them twaiQ did *he 
will of his father? They said unto him, 'The firsC-Mat. 

XXI. ZOm 

4. Swifter than a whirlwind, flies the leaden death.-Hervey. 
' Be all the dead forgot,' said Foldath's bursting wrath, 

Did not I fail in the field V—Ossian. 
Their furrow oft the stubborn glebe has broke.— Gray. 
Firm in his love, resistless in his hate, 
His arm is conquest, and his frown \$ fate.— Day. 
At length the world, renew'd by calm repose, * 
Was strong for toil; the dappled morn Jose.-Parnell. 
What modes of sight betwixt each wide extreme, 
Ihe mole s dim curtain and the lynx's beam! 
Ot hearing from the life that fills the flood, 
To that which warbles through the vernal wood!— Pope. 

5. 'Twas then his threshold first receiv'd a guest.— Par. 
For yet by swains alone the world he knew, 
Whose feet came wand'ring o'er the nightly <\ew.—Id. 
Flush'd by the spirit of the genial year, 
Now from the virgin's cheek a fresher bloom 
bhoots, less and less, the live carnation round.— Thorns. 

LESSON VII. 
6. I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice; his soear Hip 
blasted fir; his shield, the rising moon ; he sa^ the Iho e 
like a cloud of mist on the hill.— Ossian. 
At which the universal host up sent 
A shout that tore Hell's concave, and beyond 
frighted the reign of Chaos and old Night.— Miltov 
21 



230 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Will all great Neptune's ocean wash this blood 
Clean from my hand ? No; this my hand will rather 
The multitudinous seas incarnadine, 
Making the green one red, — Shak. 
Endless tears flow down in streams. — Swift 
7. How powerfully do they contend who fight with lawful 
weapons! Hark! 'Tis the voice of eloquence, pouring forth 
the living energies of the soul; pleading, with generous 
indignation, the cause of injured humanity against lawless 
mi-ht, and reading the awful destiny that awaits the 
oppressor !— I see the stern countenance of Despotism over- 
awed' I see the eye fallen that kindled the elements ot 
war! I see the brow relaxed that scowled defiance at hos- 
tile thousands! I see the knees tremble that trod with firm- 
ness the embattled field! Fear has e otered that hear 
which ambition had betrayed into violence ! The tyrant 
feels himself a man, and subject to the weakness of hu- 
manity*— Behold! and tell me, is that power contemptible 
which can thus find access to the sternest hearts ? 

LESSON VIII. 

S. Yet still they breathe destruction, still go on 
' Inhumanly ingenious to find out 
New pains for life, new terrors for the grave ; 
Artificers of death! Still monarchs dream 
Of universal empire growing up 
From universal ruin. Blast the design, 
Great God of Hosts! nor let thy creatures fall 
Unpitied victims at Ambition's shrine.— Porteus. 

9. Hail, sacred Polity, by Freedom rear'd! ; 
Hail, sacred Freedom, when by Law restrain d! 
Without you, what were man? A grovelling herd. 
In darkness, wretchedness, and want, enchain &.—Beat. 
Let cheerful M entry, from her purest cells, 
Lead forth a goodly train of Virtues fair, 
Cherish'd in early youth, now paying t>ack 
With tenfold usury the pious care.— Porteus. 

m He that chastiseth the heathen, shall he not correct ? 
ke that teacheth man knowledge, shall he not know? 
Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the Leopard his 



PROSODY. 231 

spots '? then may ye also do good, that are accustomed to 
do evil. — Jeremiah. 

11. O that my head were waters, and mine eyes a 
fountain of teats, that I might weep day and night for the 
slain of the daughter of my people ! O that I had in the 
wilderness a lodging place of way-faring men, that I might 
leave my people, and go from them! — Idem. 

LESSON IX. 

12. On this side, modesty is engaged; on that, impudence: 
on this, chastity; on that, lewdness: on this, integrity; on that, 
fraud: on this, piety; on that, profaneness : on this, constan- 
cy ; on that, fickleness: on this, honour ; on that, baseness : 
on this, moderation ; on that, unbridled passion,— Cicero. 

She from the rending earth, and bursting skies, 

Saw gods descend, and fiends infernal rise; 

Here ilx'd the dreadful, there the blest abodes, 

Fear made her devils, and weak hope her gods.— Pope. 

13. Virtuous actions are necessarily approved by the 
awakened conscience; and when they are approved, they 
are commended to practice; and wheu they are practised, 
they become easy; and when they become easy, they 
afford pleasure; and when they afford pleasure, they are 
done frequently ; and when they are done frequently, they 
are confirmed by habit : and confirmed habit is a kind of 
second nature. 

14. And it came to pass at noon, that Elijah mocked 
them, and said, * Cry aloud ; for he is a god ; either he is 
talking, or he is pursuing, or he is in [on] a journey, or 
peradventure he sleepeth, and must be awaked.' — 1 Kings, 

Some lead a life unblamable and just, 
Their own dear virtue their unshaken trust ; 
They never siu — or if (as all offend) 
Some trivial slips their daily walk attend, 
The poor are near at hand, the charge is small, 
A slight gratuity atones for mW.—Cowper. 



232 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

QUESTIONS ON PROSODY. 

Of what does Prosody treat? 

What is Punctuation? 

What are the principal points, or marks ?, 

What is the proportion of the pauses denoted by the 

comma, the semicolon, the colon, and the period ? 
What pauses are required by the other four ? 
What is the use of the comma? 
How many rules are there for the comma ? 
What is Rule first for the comma ? 
What is the exception to rule first ? 
What is Rule second for the comma ? 
What is the first exception to rule second ? 
What is the second exception to rule second ? 
What is Rule third for the comma ? 
When are words in the same construction ? 
What is Rule fourth for the comma ? 
What is the first exception to rule fourth ? 
What is the second exception to rule fourth ? 
What is the third exception to rule fourth 1 
What is the fourth exception to rule fourth ? 
What is Rule fifth for the comma ? 
What is Rule sixth for the comma ? 
What is Rule seventh for the comma ? 
What is the first exception to rule seventh ? 
What is the second exception to rule seventh ? 
What is the third exception to rule seventh ? 
What is the fourth exception to rule seventh ? 
What is Rule eighth for the comma ? 
What is the exception to ruie eighth? 
What is Rule ninth for the comma ? 
What is Rule tenth for the comma ? 
What is Rule eleveuth for the comma ? 
What is the exception to rule eleventh ? 
What is Rule twelfth for the comma ? 
What is Rule thirteenth for the comma? 
What is Rule fourteenth for the comma ? 
What is Rule fifteenth for the comma ? 
What is Rule sixteenth for the comma ? 
What is Rule seventeenth for the comma ? 
What is the use of the semicolon ? 



PROSODY. 233 

How many rules are there for the semicolon? 

What is Rule first for the semicolou ? 

What is Rule second for the semicolon ? 

What is Rule third for the semicolon ? 

What is the use of the colon ? 

How many rules are there for the colon ? 

What is Rule first for the colon ? 

What is Rule second for the colon ? 

What is Rule third for the colon ? 

What is the use of the period ? 

How mauy rules are there for the period ? 

What is Rule first for the period ? 

What is Rule second for the period ? 

What is Rule third for the period ? 

What is the use of the dash ? 

How many rules are there for the dash? 

What is Rule first for the dash ? 

What is Rule second for the dash ? 

What is the use of the note of interrogation '? 

How many rules are there for the note of interrogation? 

What is Rule first for the note of interrogation? 

What is Rule second for the note of interrogation ? 

What is Rule third for the note of interrogation ? 

What is the use of the note of exclamation ? 

How many rules are there for the note of exclamation 2 

What is Rule first for the note of exclamation? 

What is Rule second for the note of exclamation ? 

What is Rule third for the note of exclamation ? 

What is the use of the parenthesis? 

How should the incidental clause be uttered? 

How many rules are there for the parenthesis ? 

What is Rule first for the parenthesis ? 

What is Rule second for the parenthesis ? 

Are there any other maiks used in printing ? 

What does the apostrophe denote ? 

What is the use of the hyphen ? 

How is the diaeresis employed ? 

What is the use of the acute accent ? 

What is the use of the grave accent ? 

What is the use of the circumflex ? 

For what purpose is the breve employed ? 

For what purpose is the macron employed ? 

21* 



234 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

What does the ellipsis denote ? 

What does the caret show ? 

What is the use of the brace? 

What does the sectiou mark? 

What does the paragraph denote? 

How is a new subject generally distinguished ? 

What do the quotation points denote ? 

What is the use of crotchets ? 

What does the index point out? 

To what do the asterisk, the obelisk, and the parallels 

refer? 
What is Utterance? and what does it include? 
What is pronunciation ? 
What does pronunciation require? 
What is accent ? 
Is every word accented? 
Can a word have more than one accent? 
What niceties of pronunciation distinguish the elegant 

speaker ? 
What is elocution ? 
What does elocution require? 
What is emphasis ? 
What are pauses ? 
What are inflections ? 
What is the rising inflection ? 
What is the falling inflection ? 

How are these inflections applied in asking questions ? 
What are tones ? 
What is a Figure in grammar ? 
How many kinds of figures are there ? 
What is a figure of etymology ? 
How many and what are the figures of etymology 1 
What is aphseresis ? 
What is prosthesis ? 
What is syncope? 
What is apocope ? 
What is paragoge? 
What is diaeresis? 
Whal is synseresis? 
What is tmesis? 
What is a figure of syntax ? 
How many and what are the figures of syntax? 
What is ellipsis ? 



PROSODY. 335 

Are sentences ofteu elliptical ? 

Exemplify ellipsis by all the parts of speech. 

What is pleonasm ? 

W hat is enallage? 

What is hyperbaton ? 

What is a figure of rhetoric ? 

On what are the figures of rhetoric founded ? 

How many and what are the figures of rhetoric? 

What is a simile? 

What is a metaphor ? 

What is an allegory ? 

What is a metonymy ? 

What is synecdoche ? 

W 7 hat is hyperbola ? 

What is vision ? 

What is apostrophe ? 

What is personification ? 

What is erotesis ? 

What is ecphonesis ? 

What is antithesis ? 

What is climax? 

What is irony? 

What is Versification ? 

What is quantity ? 

What is rhyme? 

What is blank verse ? 

What are the principal English feet? 

What is an iambus? 

What is a trochee ? 

What is an anapaest ? 

What is a dactyl? 

How many kinds of verse are there ? 

What is Scanning ? 

What syllables are accented in an iambic line? 

What are the several measures of iambic verse ? 

What syllables are accented in a trochaic line? 

What are the several measures of trochaic verse ? 

What syllables are accented in an anapaestic line ? 

What are the several measures of anapaestic verse ? 

What syllables are accented in a dactylic line? 

What are the several measures of dactylic verse? 



236 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES IN PROSODY. 

When the pupil can readily answer all the questions on 
Prosody, and apply the rules of punctuation to any com- 
position in which the points are rightly inserted, he should 
write out the following exercises, supplying what is re- 
quired. 

EXERCISE L— PUNCTUATION. 

Copy the following sentences, and insert the comma 
where it is requisite. 

Com.Rule I. The dogmatist's assurance is paramount 

to argument. 
The whole course of his argumentation comes to nothing. 
The fieldmouse builds her garner under ground. 

Ex. The first principles of almost all sciences are few. 
What he gave me to publish was but a small part. 
To remain insensible to such provocation is apathy. 
Minds ashamed of poverty would be proud of affluence. 

R. II. I was eyes to the blind and feet was I to the lame. 
They are gone but the remembrance of them is sweet. 
He has passed it is likely through varieties of fortune. 
The mind though free has a governor within itself. 
They I doubt not oppose the bill on public principles. 
Be silent be grateful and adore. 

He is an adept in language who always speaks the truth. 
The race is not to the swift nor the battle to the strong. 

Ex. I. Hobbes believed the eternal truths which he opposed. 

He that has far to go should not hurry. 

Feeble are all pleasures in which the heart has no share. 

Ex. 2. A good name is better than precious ointment. 
Thiukst thou that duty shall have dread to speak? 
The spleen is seldom felt where Flora reigns. 

R. III. The city army court espouse my cause. 
Wars pestilences and diseases are terrible iustructers. 
Walk daily in a pleasant airy and umbrageous garden 
Wit spirits faculties hut make it worse. 
Men wives and children stare cry out and run. 
R. IV. Hope and fear are essentials in religion. 



PROSODY. 237 

Praise and adoration are perfective of our souls. 
We know bodies and their properties most perfectly. 
Satisfy yourselves with what is rational and attainable. 

Ex. 1. God will rather look to the inward motions of the 

mind than to the outward form of the body. 
Gentleness is unassuming in opiuion and temperate in zeal. 

Ex. 2. He has experienced prosperity and adversity. 
All sin essentially is and must be mortal. 

Ex. 3. One person is chosen chairmau or moderator. 
Duration or time is measured by motion. 
The governor or viceroy is chosen annually. 

Ex. 4. Reflection reason still the ties improve. 
His neat plain parlour wants our modern style. 

R. V. I inquired and rejected consulted and deliberated. 
Seed time and harvest cold and heat summer and winter 
day and night shall not cease. 

EXERCISE II.— PUNCTUATION. 

Copy the following sentence^ and insert the esf&ftrft 
"where it is requisite. 

Com. R. VI. The night being dark they did not proceed. 
There being no other coach we had no alternative. 
Remember my son that human life is the journey of a day. 
All circumstances considered it seems right. 
He that overcometh to him will I give power. 
Your land strangers devour it in your presence. 
Ah sinful nation a people laden with iniquity ! 

With heads declin'd ye cedars homage pay; 
Be smooth ye rocks ye rapid floods give way ! 

R. VII. Now Philomel sweet songstress charms the night. 
'Tis chanticleer the shepherd's clock announcing day. 
The evening star love's harbinger appears. 
The queen of night fair Dian smiles serene. 
There is yet one man Micaiah the son of Imlah. 
Our whole company man by man ventured down. 
As a work of wit the Dunciad has few equals. 

In the same temple the resounding wood 
All vocal beings hymned their equal God. 



238 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Ex. 1. The last king of Rome was Tarquinius Superbus. 
Bossuet highly eiflogizes Maria Theresa of Austria. 

Ex. 2. For he went and dwelt by the brook Cherith. 
Remember the example of the patriarch Joseph. 

Ex. 3. I wisdom dwell with prudence. 

Ye fools be ye of an understanding heart. 

I tell you that which you yourselves do know. 

Ex. 4. I crown thee king of intimate delights. 
I count the world a stranger for thy sake. 
And this makes friends such miracles below. 
God hath pronounced it death to taste that tree. 
Grace makes the slave a freeman. 

R. VflF. Deaf with the noise I took my hasty flight. 

Him piteous of his youth soft disengage. 

I played a while obedient to the fair. 

Love free as air spreads his light wings and flies. 

Then active still and unconfmed his mind 
Explores the vast extent of ages past. 

But there is yet a liberty unsung 
By poets and by senators unpraised. 

Ex. I will marry a wife beautiful as the Houries. 
He was a man able to speak upon doubtful questions. 
These are the persous anxious for the change. 
Are they men worthy of confidence and support ? 

R. IX Poverty wants some things — avarice all things. 

Honesty has one face — flattery two. 

One king is too soft and easy — an other too fiery. 

Mankind's esteem they court — and he his own : 

Theirs the wild chase of false felicities; 

His the compos'd possession of the true. 

EXERCISE III.--PUNCTUATION. 

Copy the following senteuces, and insert the comma 
where it is requisite. 

Com. R. X. My desire is to live in peace. 

The great difficulty was to compel them to pay their debts. 

To strengthen our virtue God bids us trust in him. 

I made no bargain with you to live always drudging. 

To sum up all her tongue confessed the shrew. 



PROSODY. 239 

To proceed my own adventure was still more laughable. 

We come not with design of wasteful prey 

To drive the country force the swains away. 

11. XL Having given this answer he departed. 

Some sunk to beasts find pleasure end in pain. 

Eased of her load subjection grows more light. 

Death still draws nearer never seeming near. 

He lies full low gored with wounds and weltering in his 
blood. 

Kind is fell Lucifer compared to thee. 

Man considered in himself is helpless and wretched. 

Like scattered doAvn by howling Eurus blowu. 

He with wide nostrils snorting skims the wave. 

Youth is properly speaking introductory to manhood. 

Ex. He kept his eye fixed upon the country before him. 

They have their part assigned them to act. 

Years will not repair the injuries done by him. 

R. XI f. Yes we both were philosophers. 

However providence saw fit to cross our design. 

Besides I know that the eye of the public is upon me. 

The fact certainly is much otherwise. ^ 

For nothing surely can be more inconsistent. 

R. XIII. For in such retirement the soul is strengthened. 

It engages our desires; and in some degree satisfies them. 

But of every Christian virtue piety is an essential part. 

The English verb is variable ; as love lovest loves. 

R. XIV. In a word charity is the soul of social life. 

By the bowstring I can repress violence and fraud. 

Some by being too artful forfeit the reputation of probity. 

With regard to morality I was not indifferent. 

R. XV. Lo earth receives him from the bending skies ! 

Behold I am against thee O inhabitant of the valley ! 

R. XVI. I would never consent never never never. 

His teeth did chatter chatter chatter still. 

Come come come come— to bed to bed to bed. 

R. XVII. He ried ' Cause every man to go out from me. 5 

Almet' said he ' remember what thou hast seen.' 

1 answered 4 Mock not thy servant, who is but a worm be- 
fore thee'. 



240 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE IV.— PUNCTUATION. 

1. Copy the following sentences, and insert the comma 
and the semicolon where they are requisite. 
Sem. R. I. « Man is weak 9 answered his companion 

: . ' knowledge is more than equivalent to force.' 
To judge rightly of the present we must oppose it to the 

past for ail judgement is comparative and of the future 

nothing can be known. 
4 Content is natural wealth' says Socrates to which 

shall add c luxury is artificial poverty.' 

Converse and love mankind might strongly draw 

When love was liberty and nature law. 

Sem. R. II. Be wise today 'tis madness to defer. 
The present all their care the future his. 
Wit makes an enterpriser sense a man. 
Ask thought for joy grow rich and hoard within. 
Soog soothes our pains and age has pains to soothe. 
Here an enemy encounters there a rival supplants him. 
Our answer to their reasons is No to their scoffs nothing. 

Sem. R. III. In Latin there are six cases namely the 

nominative the genitive the dative the accusative the 

vocative and the ablative. 
Most English nouns form the plural by adding s as hoy 

hoys nation nations king kings hay hays. 
Bodies are such as are endued with a vegetable soul as 

plants a sensitive soul as animals or a rational soul as the 

body of man. 

2. Copy the following seutences, and insert the comma, 
the semicolon, and the colon, where they are requisite. * 
Col. R. I. Death wounds to cure we fall we rise we reign. 

Bliss is there none but unprecarious bliss 

That is the gem sell all and purchase that. 

Beware of usurpation God is the judge of all. 

Col. R. II. I have the world here before me I will 
review it at leisure surely happiness is somewhere to 

be found. 



PROSODY. 241 

A melancholy enthusiast courts persecution and when 
he cannot obtain it afflicts himself with absurd penances 
but the holiness of St. Paul consisted in the simplicity of 
a pious life. 

Observe his awful portrait and admire 
Nor stop at wonder imitate and live. 

Col. R. III. Such is our Lord's injunction " Watch 

and pray." 
He died praying for his persecutors " Father forgive 

them they know not what they do." 
On his cane was inscribed this motto " Festina kfite." 

3. Copy the following sentences, and insert the comma, 
the semicolon, the colon, and the period, where they are 
requisite. 

Per. 11. I. Then appeared the sea and the dry land 
the mountains rose and the rivers flowed the sun and 
moon began their course in the skies herbs and plants 
clothed the ground the air the earth and the waters were 
stored with their respective inhabitants at last man was 
made in the image of God 

In general those parents have most reverence who most 
deserve it for he that lives well cannot be despised 

Per. R. II. Civil accomplishments frequently give 
rise to fame but a distinction is to be made between 
fame and true honour the statesman the orator or the poet 
may be famous while yet the man himself is far from 
being honoured 

Per. R. III. Glass was invented in England by Be- 

nalt a monk A D 664 
The Roman era U C commenced A C 753 years 
Here is the Literary Life of S T Coleridge Esq 
EXERCISE V.~ PUNCTUATION. 

1. Copy the following sentences, and insert the dash., 
and such other points as are nececessary. 

R. I. You say famous very often audi don't know- 
exactly what it means a famous uniform famous 
doings What does famous mean 

O why famous means Now don't you know what fa- 
mous means It means It is a word that people say It 
is the fashion to say it It means it menus famous 
22 



242 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

R. II. But this life is not all there is full surely an oihet 
state abiding us And if there is what is thy prospect 
O remorseless obdurate Thou shalt hear it would be 
thy wisdom to think thou now nearest the sound of 
that trumpet which shall awake the dead Return O 
yet return to the Father of mercies and live 

The future pleases Why The present pains 
But that's a secret yes which all men know 

2. Copy the following sentences, and insert the note of 
interrogation, and such other pointy as are necessary. 

R. I. Does Nature bear a tyrant's "breast 
Is she the friend of stern control 
Wears she the despot's purple vest 
Or fetters she the free-born soul 

Why should a man whose blood is warm within 
Sit like his grandsire cut in alabaster 

Who art thou courteous stranger and from whence 
Why roam thy steps to this abandon'd dale 

R. II. Who bid the stork Columbus-like explore 

Heavens not his own and worlds unknown before 
W r ho calls the council states the certain day 
Who forms the phalanx and who points the way 

R. III. Ask of thy mother Earth why oaks are made 
Taller and stronger than the weeds they shade 

They asked me who I was and whither I was going 

3. Copy the following sentences, and insert the note 
of exclamation, and such other points as are necessary. 

R. I. Alas how is that rugged heart forlorn 

Behold the victor vanquish'd by the worm 

Bliss sublunary bliss proud words and vain 

R. II. O Popular Applause what heart of man 

Is proof against thy sweet seducing charms 

More than thy balm O Gilead heals the wound 
R. III. How often have I loiter'd o'er thy green 

Where humble happiness endear'd each scene 

What black despair what horror fills his heart 

4. Copy the following sentences, and insert the paren- 
thesis, and such other points as are necessary. 



PROSODY. . 243 

It. I. And all the question wrangle e'er so long 
Is only this If God has plac'd him wrong 

And who what God foretells who speaks in things 
Still louder than in words shall dare deny 

R. II. Say was it virtue more though Heav'n ne'er gave 
Lamented Digby sunk thee to the grave 

Where is that thrift that avarice of time 
O glorious avarice thought of death inspires 

And oh the last last what can words express 
Thought reach the last last silence of a friend 

EXERCISE VI. PUNCTUATION. 

Copy the following promiscuous sentences, and insert 
the points which they require. 

As one of them opened his sack he espied his money 

They cried out the more exceedingly Crucify him 

The soldiers' counsel was to kill the prisoners 

Great injury these vermin mice and rats do in the field 

It is my son's coat an evil beast hath devoured him 

Peace of all worldly blessings is the most valuable 

By this time the very foundation was removed 

The only words he uttered were I am a Roman citizen 

Some distress either felt or feared gnaws like a worm 

How then must I determine Have I no interest If I have 

not I am stationed here to no purpose 
In the fire the destruction was so swift sudden vast and 

miserable as to have no parallel in story 
Dionysius the tyrant of Sicily was far from being happy 
I ask now Verres what thou hast to advance 
Excess began and sloth sustains the trade 
Fame can never reconcile a man to a death bed 
They that sail on the sea tell of the danger 
Be doers of the word and not hearers only 
The storms of wint'ry time will quickly pass 
Here Hope that smiling angel stands 
Disguise I see thou art a wickedness 
There are no tricks in plain and simple faith 
True love strikes root in reasou passion's foe 
Two gods divide them all Pleasure and Crain 



244 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

I am satisfied My son has done his duty 

Remember Almet the vision which thou hast seen 

I beheld an enclosure beautiful as the gardens of paradise 

The knowledge which I have received I will communicate 

But I am not yet happy and therefore I despair 

Wretched mortals said I to what purpose are you busy 

Bad as the world is respect is always paid to virtue 

In a word he views men in the clear sunshine of charity 

This being the case I am astonished and amazed 

These men approached him and saluted him king 

Excellent and obliging sages these undoubtedly 

Yet at the same time the man himself undergoes a change 

One constant effect of idleness is to nourish the passions 

You heroes regard nothing but glory 

Take care lest while you strive to reach the top you fall 

Proud and presumptuous they can brook no opposition 

Nay some awe of religion may still subsist 

Then said he Lo I come to do thy will O God 

As for me behold I am in your hand 

Now I Paul myself beseech you 

He who lives always in public cannot live to his own soul 

whereas he who retires remains calm 
Therefore behold I even I will utterly forget you 
This text speaks only of those to whom it speaks 
Yea he warmeth himself and saith Aha I am warm 
King Agrippa believest thou the prophets 

EXERCISE VII.— PUNCTUATION. 

Copy the following promiscuous sentences, and insert 
the points which they require. 

To whom can riches give repute or trust 
Content or pleasure but the good and just 

To him no high no low no great no small 
He fills he bounds connects and equals all 

Reason's whole pleasure all the joys of sense 
Lie in three words health peace and competence 

No so for once indulg'd they sweep the main 
Deaf to the call or hearing hear iu vain 

Say will the falcon stooping from above 

Smit with her varying plumage spare the dove 



PROSODY. 

Throw Egypt's by and offer ia its stead 
Offer the crown on Berenice's head 
Falsely luxurious will not man awake 
And spinging from the bed of sloth enjoy 
The cool the fragrant and the silent hour 
Yet thus it is nor otherwise can be 
So far from ought romantic what I sing 
Thyself first know then love a self there is 
Of virtue fond that kindles at her charms 
How far that little candle throws his beams 
So shines a good deed in a naughty world 
You have too much respect upon the world 
They lose it that do buy it with much care 
How many things by season season'd are 
To their right praise and true perfectioa 
Canst thou descend from converse with the skies 
And seize thy brother's throat for what a clod 
In two short precepts all your business lies 
Would you be great be virtuous and be wise 
But sometimes virtue starves while vice is fed 
What then is the reward of virtue bread 
A life all turbulence and noise may seem 
To him that leads it wise and to be prais'd 
But wisdom is a pearl with most success 
Sought in still waters and beneath clear skies 
All but the swellings of the softened heart 
That waken not disturb the tranquil mind 
Inspiring God who boundless spirit all 
And unremitting energy pervades 
Adjusts sustains and agitates the whole 
Ye ladies for indiff'rent in your cause 
I should deserve to forfeit all applause 
Whatever shocks or gives the least offence 
To virtue delicacy truth or sense 
Try the criterion 'tis a faithful guide 
Nor has nor can have scripture on its side 



22 



245 



246 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



EXERCISE VIII.— SCANNING. 

Divide the following verses into the feet which compose 
them, and mark the long and the short syllables. 

Alone thou sitst above the everlasting hills, 
And all immensity of space thy presence fills : 

For thou alone art God — as God thy saints adore thee; 

Jehovah is thy name — they have no gods before thee. 

Up the dewy mountain, Health is bounding lightly; 

On her brows a garland, twin'd with richest posies : 
Gay is she, elate with hope, and smiling sprightly ; 

Redder is her cheek, and sweeter, than the rose is. 

* The impenitent sinner whom mercy empowers, 
Dishonours that goodness which seeks to restore? 
As the sands of the desert are water'd by showers, 
Yet barren and fruitless remain as before. 

Holy and pure ^re the pleasures of piety, 
Drawn from the fountain of mercy and love; 

Endless, exhaustless, exempt from satiety, 
Rising unearthly, and soaring above. 

The bolt that strikes the tow'ring cedar dead 5 
Oft passes harmless o'er the hazel's head. 

Yet to their gen'ral's voice they soon obey'd 

Innum'rable. As when the potent rod 

Of Amram's son, in Egypt's evil day, 

Wav'd round the coast, up call'd a pitchy cloud 

Of locusts, warping on the eastern wind, 

That o'er the realm of impious Pharaoh hung 

Like night, and darkeu'd all the land of Nile. — MiL 

Thy name is dear-*-'tis virtue balm'd in love; 

Yet e'en thy name a pensive sadness brings. 
Ah! wo the day, our hearts were doom'd to prove, 

That fondest love but points affliction's stings ! 

Zephyrs, moving bland, and breathing fragrant 
With the sweetest odours of the spring, 

O'er the wiDged boy, a thoughtless vagrant, 
Shmib'ringin the grove 3 their perfumes fling. 



PROSODY. 247 

When the winds o'er Gennesaret roar'd, 

Aod the billows tremendously rose, 
The Saviour but utter'd the word, 

They were hush'd to the calmest repose. 

Come from the mount of the leopard, spouse, 

Come from the den of the lion; 
Come to the tent of thy shepherd, spouse, 

Come to the mountain of Zion. 

In the days of thy youth, 

Remember thy God: 
O forsake not his truth, 

Incur not his rod ! 

Constant and duteous, 

Meek as the dove, 
How art thou beauteous, 

Daughter of love ! 

ODE. 

Led by the pow'r of soog, and nature's love, 
Which raise the soul all vulgar themes above, 
The mountain grove 
Would Edwin rove, 
And seek the woody dell, 
Where noontide shadows fell, 
Cheering, 
Veering, 
Mov'd by the zephyr's swell. 
Nor less he lov'd (rude nature's child) 
The elemental conflict wild; 
When, fold on fold, above was pil'd 
The wat'ry swathe, careering on the wind. 
Such scenes he saw 
With solemn awe, 
As in the presence of th' Eternal mind. 
Fix'd he gaz'd, 
Tranc'd and rais'd, 
Sublimely rapt in awful pleasure undefin'dc 
Lo! now, within the deep ravine, 
A black impending cloud 
Infolds him in its shroud | 



248 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

And dark and darker glooms the scene. 
Through the thicket streaming, 
Lightnings now are gleaming; 
Thunders rolling dread, 
Shake the mountain's head; 
Nature's war 
Echoes far 
O'er ether borne. 
That flash 
The ash 
Has scath'd and torn ! 
Now it rages; 
Oaks of ages 
Of their honours are retrench'd. 
The tempest-driven 
Cloud is riven; 
And the thirsty land is dreuch'd. 



THE END OF PART FOURTH. 



TO THE 

EXAMPLES OF FALSE CONSTRUCTION 

DESIGNED FOR ORAL EXERCISES, 

UNDER 

THE RULES OF SYNTAX AND THE NOTES, 



[[CFThe examples of False Syntax here explained, should be 
corrected orally by the pupil, according to the formules given un- 
der the rules ; and the following corrections may afterwards be 
used as examples for parsing, if necessary.] 

RULE 1. 
Note 1, 

This is a hard saying. 

An humble heart shall find favour. 

Passing from an earthly to a heavenly diadem. 

Few have the happiness of living with such a one, 

She evinced a uniform adherence to the truth, 

An hospital is an asylum for the sick. 

This is truly a wonderful invention. 

He is a younger man than we supposed. 

A humorsome child is never long pleased. 

A careless man is unfit for an hostler. 

Note 2. 

Avoidrude sports ) an eye is soon lost, or a bone broken, 
As the drop of the bucket, and the dust of the balance. 
Not a word was uttered, nor a sign given. 
I despise not the doer, but the deed. 

Note 3. 

What is the difference between the old and the new method. 
The sixth and the tenth have a close resemblance, 



250 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Is Paris on the right hand, or the left ? 

Does Peru join the Atlantic, or the Pacific ocean ? 

He was influenced both by a just and a generous principle. 

The book was read by the old and the young. 

I have both the large and the small grammar. 

Is the north and south line measured ? 

Are the two north and south lines both measured ? 

Are both the north and the south line measured ? 

Are the north line and the south both measured? 

Are both the north and the south lines measured ? 

Are both the north lines and the south measured? 

Note 4. 
Cleon was an other sort of man. 
There is a species of animal called seal. 
Let us wait in patience and quietness. 
The contemplative mind delights in silence. 
Arithmetic is a branch of mathematics. 
You will never have an other such chance. 
I expected some such answer. 
And I persecuted this way unto death. 

• Note 5. 
He is entitled to the appellation of gentleman. 
Cromwell assumed the title of Protector. 
Her father is honoured with the title of Earl. 
The chief magistrate is styled President. 
The highest title in the state is that of Governor. 
Note 6. 

He is a better writer than reader. 

He was an abler mathematician than linguist. 

I should rather have an orange than an apple. 

Note 7. 
Those, words which are signs of complex ideas, are liable to be 

misunderstood. 
The carriages which were formerly in use, were very clumsy. 
The place is not mentioned by the geographers who wrote af 
that time. 

RULE II. 

He that is studious, will improve. 
They that seek wisdom, will be wise. 
She and / are of the same age. 
You are two or three years older than ive. 
Are not John and thou cousins ? 
I can write as handsomely as thou. 
Nobody said so but he. 
Who dost thou think was there ? 
Who broke this slate ? /. 
We are alone ; here's none but thou and I. 
Them that honour me, I will honour; and they that despise me, 
shall be lightly esteemed. 



KEV. 251 

He loho in that instance was deceived, is a man of sound judge- 
ment. 

RULE III. 

The book is a present from my brother Richard, him that keeps 

the bookstore. 
I am going to see my friends in the country, them that we met at 

the ferry. 
This dress was made by Catharine, the milliner, her that we saw 

at work. 
Dennis, the gardener, he that gave me the tulips, has promised 

me a piony. 

Resolve me, why the cottager, and king, 
He whom sea-severd realms obey, and he 
Who steals his whole dominion from the waste, 
Repelling winter blasts with mud and straw, 
Disquieted alike, draw sigh for sigh. 

RULE IV. 

Note 1. 

Things of this sort are easily understood. 
Who broke thftse~<ongs ? 
Where did I drop these scissors ? 
Bring out those oats. 
Extinguish those embers. 
I disregard these minutiae. 
That kind of injuries we need not fear. 

What was the height of that gallows which Haman erected? 
Note 2. 

We rode about ten miles an hour. 

'Tis for a thousand pounds. 

How deep is the water ? About six fathoms. 

The lot is twenty-five feet wide. 

I have bought eight loads of wood. 

Note 8. 

Industry is one means of obtaining competence. 

Scholasticus sought opportunities to display his learning ; and, 

by this means, rendered himself ridiculous. 
Caled was remarkable for his modesty, docility, and ingenuity ; 

and, by these means, he acquired both knowledge and fame. " 
Note 4. 

He chose the last of these three. 

Trissyllables are often accented on the first syllable. 

Which are the two most remarkable isthmuses in the world ? 

Note 5. 
The scriptures are more valuable than any other writings. 
The Russian Empire is more extensive than any other govern- 
ment in the world. 



252 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Israel loved Joseph more than all his other children ? because be 
was the son of his old age. 

Note 6. 

Of all ill habits, idleness is the most incorrigible. 

Eve was the fairest of women 

Hope is the most constant of all the passions, 

Note 7. 

That opinion is too general to be easily corrected. 
Virtue confers the greatest (or highest) dignity upon man. 
The tongue is like a race-horse : the less weight it carries the fas- 
ter it runs. 
A more healthy place cannot be found. 
The best and the wisest men often meet with discouragement* 

Note 8. 

He showed us an easier and more agreeable way. 
This was the plainest and most convincing argument. 
Some of the wisest and most moderate of the senators. 
This is an ancient and honourable fraternity. 
There vice shall meet a fatal and irrevocable doom* 

Note 9. 

He is an industrious young man. 

She has an elegant new house. u 

The first two classes have read. 

The two oldest sons have removed to the westward 

England had not seen an other such king. 

Note 10. 

She reads well, and writes neatly. 'h 

He was extremely prodigal. 

They went, conformably to their engagement 

He speaks very fluently, and reasons justly. 

The deepest streams run the most silently. 

These appear to be finished the most neatly. 

He was scarcely gone, when you arrived. 

I am exceedingly sorry to hear of your misfortunes j 

The work was uncommonly well executed. 

This is not so large a cargo as the last. • 

Thou knowst how good a horse mine is. V J] 

I cannot think so meanly of him. , 

He acted much more wisely than the others. 4 

Note 11. U 

I bought those books at a very low price. 

Go and tell those boys to be still. 

I have several copies : thou art welcome to those two* 

Which of those three men is the most useful ? 

Note 12. 

Hope is as strong an incentive to action as fear : tliat is the &>& 
ticipation of good, this of evil> 



KEY. 253 

The poor want some advantages which the rich enjoy; but we 
should not therefore account these happy, and those miserable. 
Memory and forecast just returns engage, 
That pointing back to youth, this on to age. 
Note 13. 

Let each of them be heard in his turn. 

Is either of these men kown ? 

No: neither of them has any connexions here. 

Note 14. 

Did any of the company stop to assist you ? 
Here are six; but none of them will answer. 

RULE V. 

Every one must judge of his own feelings. 

Can any person, on his entrance into the world, be fully secure^ 

that/te shall not be deceived? 
He cannot see one in prosperity Avithout envying him. 
I gave him oats, but he would not eat them. 
Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put it on Jacob. 
Take up the tongs, and put them in their place. 
Let each esteem others better than himself. 
A person may make himself happy without riches. 
Every man should try to provide for himself. 
The mind of man should not be left without something on which 

to employ its energies. 

An idler is a watch that wants both hands, 
As useless if it goes, as when it stands. 
Note 1. 
Many words darken speech. 
These praises he then seemed inclined to retract. 
These people are all very ignorant. 
Asa's heart was perfect with the Lord. 
Who, instead of going about doing good, are perpetually doing 

mischief. 
Whom ye delivered up, and denied in the presence of Pontius 

Pilate. 
Whom, when they had washed her, they laid in an upper cham- 
ber. 
There are witnesses of the fact which I have mentioned. 
He is now sorry for what he said. 
The empress, approving these conditions, immediately ratified 

them. 
Though this incident appears improbable, yet I cannot doubt the 

author's veracity. 

Note 2. 

Thou art my father's brother ; else would I reprove thee. 
Your weakness is excusable, but your wickedness is not. 
Now, my son, I forgive thee, and freely pardon thy fault. 

Thou drawst the inspiring breath of ancient song. 
Till nobly rises emulous thy own. 

23 



254 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note 3. 

This is the horse which my father imported. 

Those are the birds which we call gregarious. 

He has two brothers, one of luhom I am acquainted with. 

What was that creature which Job called leviathan ? 

Those who desire to be safe, should be careful* to do that which 
is right. 

A butterfly, ivho thought himself an accomplished traveller, hap- 
pened to light upon a bee-hive. 

There was a certain householder who planted a vineyard. 
Note 4. ' 

He instructed and fed the crowds that surrounded him. 

The court, which has great influence upon the public manners, 
ought to be very exemplary. 

The wild tribes Z/iaHnhabit the wilderness, contemplate the ocean 
with astonishment, and gaze upon the starry heavens with 
delight. 

Note 5. 

Judas, (which is now an other name for treachery,) betrayed his 
master with a kiss. 

He alluded to Phalaris, — which is a name for all that is cruel. 

Note 6. 

He was the first that entered. 
He was the drollest fellow that I ever saw. 
This is the same man that we saw before. 
Who is she that comes clothed in a robe of green ? 
The wife and fortune thai he gained, did not aid him. 
Men that are avaricious, never have enough. 
All that I haVe, is thine. 
Was it thou, or the wind, that shut the door ? 
It was not I, that shut it. 

The babe that was in the cradle, appeared to be healthy. 
Note 7. 

He is a man that knows what belongs to good manners, and thai 

will not do a dishonourable act. 
The friend who was here, and who entertained us so much, will 

never be able to visit us again. 
The curiosities which he has brought home, and w/m'c/j we shall 

soon have the pleasure of seeing, are said to be very rare. 

Note 8. 
Observe them in the order in which they stand. 
We proceeded immediately to the place to which we were di- 
rected. 
My companion remained a week in the state in which I left him. 
The way in which I do it, is this. 

Note 9. 

Remember the condition from which thou art rescued. 
I know of no rule by which it may be done. 



KEY. 255 

He drew up a petition, in which he too freely represented his 

own merits. 
The hour is hastening, in which whatever praise or censure I have 

acquired, will be remembered with equal indifference. 

Note 10. 

Many will acknowledge the excellence of religion, who cannot 

tell wherein that excellence consists. 
Every difference of opinion is not a difference of principle. 
Next to the knowledge of God, this knowledge of ourselves, seems 

most worthy of our endeavour. 

Note 11. 

Thou, who hast thus condemned the act, art thyself the man that 
committed it. 

There is in simplicity a certain majesty, which is far above the 
quaintness of wit. 

Thou, who art a party concerned, hast no right to judge. 

It is impossible for such men as those who are likely to receive 
the appointment, ever to determine this question. 

There are in the empire of China millions of people, whose sup- 
port is derived almost entirely from rice. 

Note. 12. 

I had no idea but that the story was true. 

The post-boy is not so weary but that he can whistle. 

He had no intimation but that the men were honest. 

RULE VI. 

In youth the multitude eagerly pursue pleasure, as if it were their 
chief good. 

The council were not unanimous, and they separated without 
coming to any determination. 

The committee were divided in sentiment, and they referred the 
business to the general meeting. 

There happened to the army a very strange accident, which put 
them in great consternation. 

The enemy were not able to support the charge, and they dis- 
persed and fled. 

The defendant's counsel had a very difficult task imposed on them, ' 

The board of health publish their proceedings. 

I saw all the species thus delivered from their sorrows. 

Note 1. 

I saw the whole species thus delivered from Us sorrows. 

This court is famous for the justice of its decisions. 

The convention then resolved iiself into a committee of the 

whole. 
The crowd was so great, that the judges with difficulty made 

their way through it. 

RULE VII. 

Your levity and heedlessness, if tliey continue, will prevent all 
substantial improvement. 



256 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Poverty and obscurity will oppress hint only, who esteems them 

oppressive. 
Good sense and refined policy, are obvious to few, because they 

cannot be discovered but by a train of reflection. 
Avoid haughtiness of behaviour, and affectation of manners : they 

imply a want of solid merit. 
If love and unity continue, they will make you partakers of one 

an other's joy. 
Suffer not jealousy and distrust to enter : they will-destroy, like 

a canker, every germ of friendship. 
Hatred and animosity are inconsistent with Christain charity: 

guard, therefore, against the slightest indulgence of them. 
Every man is entitled to liberty of" conscience, and freedom of 

opinion, if he does not pervert them to the injury of others. 

RULE VIII. 

Neither Sarah, Ann, nor Jane, has performed her task. 

One or the other must relinquish his claim. 

A man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which will 

move only as it is moved. 
Rye or barley, when it is scorched, may supply the place of 

coffee. 
A man may see a metaphor or an allegory in a picture, as well as 

read it in a description. 
Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any condition of life; 

for it may be thy own lot. 

RULE IX. 

We were disappointed. 

She dares not oppose it. 

His pulse is too quick. 

Circumstances alter cases. 

He needs not trouble himself. 

Twenty-four pence are two shillings. 

On one side were beautiful meadows. 

He may pursue what studies he pleases. 

What has become of our cousins? 

There were more impostors than one. 

What say his friends on this subject ? 

Thou knowst the urgency of the case. 

What avail good sentiments with a bad life ? 

Have those books been sent to the school ? 

There are many occasions for the exercise of patience . 

What sounds has each of the vowels ? 

There was a great number of spectators. 

There is an abundance of treatises on this easy science. 

While, ever and anon, there falls 
A heap of hoary moulder'd walls. 

He that trusts in the Lord, will never be without a friend. 
Errors that originatem ignorance, are generally excusable. 
Be ye not as the horse, or as the mule, which has no under- 
stands a. 



KEY. 257 

Not one of the authors who mention this incident, is entitled to 
credit. 

The man and woman that were present, being strangers to him, 
wondered at his conduct. 

There necessarily follow from thence, these plain and unques- 
tionable consequences. 

O thou, forever present in my way, 

Who dost my motives and my toils survey. 

Note 1. 

The derivation of these words is uncertain. 

Four years interest was demanded. 

One, added to nineteen, makes twenty. 

The increase of orphans renders the addition necessary. 

The road to virtue and happiness, is open to all. 

The ship, with all her crew, was lost. 

Nothing but vain and foolish pursuits, delights some folks. 

Note 2. 

To obtain the praise of men, was their only object. 
To steal and then deny it is a double sin. 
To copy and claim the writings of others, is plagiarism. 
To live soberly, righteously, and piously, is required of all men. 
That it is our duty to promote peace and harmony among men, 
admits of no dispute. 

Note 3. 

The reproofs of instruction are the way of life. 
A diphthong is two vowels joined in one syllable. 
So great an affliction to him were his wicked sons. 
What are the latitude and longitude of that island ? 

Note 4. 

1. Familiar Style. 

Was it thou, that built that house ? » 

That boy writes very elegantly. 

Vould not thou write without blotting thy book ? 

Dost not thou think — or, Do' n't thou think, it will rain to-day * 

Does not — or, Do'n't your cousin, intend to visit you ? 

That boy has torn my book. 

Was it thou, that spread the hay ? 

Was it James, or thou, that lei him in ? 

He dares not say a word. 

Thou stood in my way, and hindered me. 

2. Solemn Style. 

The Lord hath prepared his throne in the heavens ; and his king- 
dom ruleth over all. 

Thou answeredst them, O Lord our God : thou wast a God that 
forgave* them, though thou tookest vengeance of their inven- 
tions. 

Then thou spakest in vision to thy Holy One, and saidst— 

*Forgavetf (as in Ps.xcix. 8.> appears to be nretg. 

23 * ' 



258 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

So then, it is not of Shim that willeth, nor of him that runneth, but 
of God that showeth mercy. 

Note 5. 

Dear friend, J am sorry to hear of thy loss ; but / hope it may be 
retrieved. / should be happy to render thee any assistance in 
my power. J shall call to see thee to-morrow morning. Accept 
assurances of my regard. 

I have just received a fresh supply of goods ; and they are of the 
first quality. 

Will martial flames for ever fire thy mind, 
And wilt thou never be to heaven resign'd ? 

RULE X. 

The nobility were assured that he would not interpose. 

The committee have attended to their appointment. 

Mankind ivere not, at that time, united by the bonds of civil so- 
ciety. 

The majority were disposed to adopt the measure. 

The peasantry go barefoot, and the middle sort make use of 
wooden shoes. 

All the world are spectators of your conduct. 

Blessed are the people that know the joyful sound. 

Note 1. 

The church has no power to inflict corporal punishments. 
The fleet was seen sailing up the channel. 
The meeting has established several salutary regulations. 
The regiment consists of a thousand men. 
A detachment of two hundred men, was immediately sent. 
Every auditory takes this in good part. 
In this business, the house of commons ivas of no weight. 
Is the senate considered as a separate body ? 
There is a flock of birds. 

No society is chargeable with the disapproved conduct of par= 
ticular members. 

RULE XL 

Temperance and exercise preserve health. 

Time and tide wait for no man. 

My love and affection towards thee, remain unaltered. 

Wealth, honour, and happiness, forsake the indolent. 

My flesh and my heart fail. 

In all his words, there are sprightliness and vigour. 

Elizabeth's meekness and humility were extraordinary. 

In unity, tonsist the security and welfare of every society. 

High pleasures and luxurious living beget satiety. 

Much do human pride and folly require correction. 

Our conversation and intercourse with the world, are, in several 

respects, an education for vice. 
Occasional release from toil, and indulgence of ease, are what 

nature demands, and virtue allows.. 



KEY. 259 

What generosity, and what humanity, were then displayed ! 

What thou desir'st, 
And what thou fearst, alike destroy all hope> 

Note 1. 

Wisdom, and not wealth, procures esteem. 
Prudence, and not pomp, is the basis of his fame. 
Not fear, hut labour has overcome him. 
His constitution, as well as his fortune, requires care. 
Their religion, as well as their manners, was ridiculed. 
The decency, and not the abstinence, makes the difference. 
The buyer, as well as the seller, renders himself liable. 
Not her beauty, but her talents attract attention. 
It is her talents, and not her beauty, that attract attention. 
It is her beauty, and not her talents, that attracts attention, 
Note 2. 

Each day, and each hour, brings its portion of duty. 

Every house, and even every cottage, was plundered. 

Every thought, every word, and every action, will be brought in- 
to judgement, whether it be good or evil. 

The time will come, when no oppressor, no unjust man, will be able 
to screen himselffrom punishment. 

No bandit fierce, no tyrant mad with pride. 
No cavernd hermit, rests self-satisfied. 

Note 3. 

In this affair, perseverance and dexterity were requisite. 

Town and country are equally agreeable to me. 

Sobriety and humility lead to honour. 

The king, the lords, and the commons, compose the British parlia 

ment. 
The man, andhh whole family, are dead. 
A small house, and a trifling annuity, are still granted him. 

Note 4. 

To profess, and to possess, are very different things. 

To do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly with God, are du- 
ties of universal obligation. 

To be round or square, to be solid or fluid, to be large or small, 
and to be moved swiftly or slowly, are all equally alien from the 
nature of thought. 

RULE XII. 

Neither imprudence, credulity, nor vanity, has ever been imputed 

to him. 
What the heart or the imagination dictates, flows readily. 
Neither authority nor analogy supports thy opinion. 
Either ability or inclination was wanting. 
Redundant grass or heath affords abundance to their cattle. 
The returns of kindness are sweet ; and there is neither honour, nor 

virtue .nor utility, in repelnne them. 



260 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The sense or drift of a proposition, often depends upon a single 
letter. 

Note 1. 
Neither he nor you were there. 
Either the boys or I was in fault. 
Neither he nor I intend to be present. 
Neither the captain nor the sailors were saved. 
Whether one person or more were concerned in the business, doe^ 
not yet appear. 

Note 2. 

Are they, or am T, expected to be there ? 

Neither is he, nor am I, capable of it. 

Either he has been imprudent, or his associates have been viV 

dictive. 
Neither were their riches, nor was their influence, great. 

Note 3. 

My father and I were riding out. 

The premiums were given to George and me 

Jane and I are invited. 

They ought to invite my sister and me. 

We dreamed a dream in one night, he and I, 

Note 4. 

To practise tale-bearing, or even to countenance ft, is great in* 

justice. 
To reveal secrets, or to betray a friend, is contemptible perfidy. 

RULE XI1L 

Both he not leave the ninety and nine, and go into the wilder- 
ness to seek that which is lost ? 
Did he not tell thee his fault, and entreat thee to forgive him ? 
If he understands the business, and attends to it, he cannot fail of 

success. 
The day h approaching, and is hastening upon us, in- which we 

must give an account of our stewardship. 
If thou turn not unto the Lord, but forget him who remembered 

thee in thy distress, great will be thy condemnation. 
There are a few, who have kept their integrity to the Lord, and 

who prefer his truth to all other enjoyments. 
This report was current yesterday, and it agrees with what we 

heard before. 
Virtue is generally praised, and it would be generally practised 

also, if men were wise. 

Note 1. 

He would have gone with us, if we had invited hhu. 
They have chosen the part of honour and virtue. 
He soon began to be weary of having nothing to do. 
Somebody has broken my slate. 



KEV. 261 

I saw him, when he did it. 

Note 2. 
He had entered into the conspiracy. 
The American planters raise cotton and rice. 
The report is founded on truth. 
I entered the room and sat down. 
Go and lie down, my son. 
With such books, it will always be difficult to teach children to read. 

RULE XIV. 

Note 1. 

By observing truth, you will command respect. 

I could not, for my heart, forbear pitying him. 

I heard them discussing this subject. 

By consulting the best authors, he became learned. 

Here are rules, by observing which, you may avoid error. 

Note 2. 

Their consent was necessary for the raising o/any supplies. 
Thus the saving of a great nation devolved on a husbandman. 
It is an overvaluing of ourselves, to decide upon everything. 
The teacher does not allow any calling of ill names. 
That burning of the capitol was a wanton outrage. 
May nothing hinder our receiving of so great a good. 
My admitting o/thefact, will not affect the argument. 
Cain's killing of his brother, originated in envy. 

Note 3. 

Ceesar carried y off the treasures, which his opponent had neglected 

to take with him. 
It is dangerous to play with edge tools. 
I intends return in a few days. 
Needless suffering is never a duty. 
Nor is it wise to complain. 
I well remember that I told you so. 

The doing of good — or, To do good, is a Christain's vocation. 
Piety is a constant endeavour to live to God. It is an earnest desire 

to do his will, and not our own. 

Note 4. 
There is no harm in women's knowing about these things. 
They did not give notice of the pupil's leaving. 
The sun, darting his beams through my windoAV, awoke me. 
The maturity of the sago tree is known by the leaves' being cover- 
ed with a delicate white powder. 

Note 6. 

Sailing up the river, you may see the whole town. 

Consciousness of guilt renders death terrible. 

By yielding to temptation, we sacrifice our peace. 

In loving our enemies, we shed no man's blood. 

By teaching the young, we prepare them for usefulness. 



262 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note 6. 

A nail well driven will support a great weight. 
See here a hundred sentences, stolen from my work. 
I found the water entirely frozen, and the pitcher broken. 
Being forsaken by my friends, I had no other resource. 

RULE XV. 

Note 1. 

The work ivill never be completed. 

We should always prefer our duty to our pleasure. 

It is impossible to be continually at work. 

He behaved impertinently to his master. 

The heavenly bodies are perpetually in motion. 

He found her not only busy, but even pleased and happy 

Note 2. 

The preceding remarks are quoted from memory. 

When a substantive is put absolute. 

Such expressions sound harsh. 

His subsequent conduct was more satisfactory. 

Such events are of rare (or unfrequent) occurrence. 

Velvet feels very smooth. 

Note 3. 

Bring him hither to me. 

I shall go thither again in a few days. 

Whither are they all riding in so great haste ? 

Note 4. 

Hence it appears, that the statement is incorrect. 
Thence arose the misunderstanding. 
Do you know whence it proceeds ? 

Note 5. 

You see that not many are required. 

I knew that they had heard of his misfortunes. 

He remarked, that time was valuable. 

Note 6. 
Know now, whether this is thy son's coat or not. 
Whether he is in fault or not, I cannot tell. 
I will ascertain whether it is so or not. 

Note 7. 

I will by no means entertain a spy. 

Nobody ever invented or discovered any thing, in any way to be 

compared to this. 
Be honest, and take no shape or semblance of disguise. 
I did not like either his temper or his principles. 
Nothing ever affected her so much as this misconduct of her son. 



amt 
in 



key. 263 

RULE XVI 

Note T. 

He has made alterations in the work, and additions to it. 

He is more bold and active than his companion, but not so wise and 
studious. 

Sincerity is as valuable as knowledge, and even more so. 

He may be said to have saved the life of a citizen j and, conse- 
quently, he is entitled to the reward. 

I always have been, and always shall be, of this opinion. 

The men had made inquiry for Simon's house, and were standing 
before the gate. ° 

The king of France, or of England, was to be the umpire. 

What is now kept secret, shall be hereafter displayed and seek 
in the clearest light. 

We pervert the noble faculty of speech, when we use it to rfc/I 
or to disquiet our neighbours. 

That the art of printing teas then unknown, was a circumstance 
some respects favourable to the freedom of the pen. 

An other passion which the present age is apt to run into, is a de- 
sire to make children learn all things. 

Be more anxious to acquire knowledge, than to show it. 

It requires few talents to which most men are not born, or which, at 
least, they may not acquire. 

The court of chancery frequently mitigates and disarms the com- 
mon law. 

Note 2. 

We were apprehensive that some accident had happened 

I do not deny that he has merit. 

Are you afraid that he will forget you ? 

These paths and bowers, doubt not that our joint hands 

Will keep from wilderness. 

Note 3. 
It was no other than his own father. 
Have you no further proof than this ? 
I expected something more than this. 
He no sooner retires than his heart burns with devotion. 
Such literary filching is nothing else than robbery. 

Note 4. 
Neither despise nor oppose what you do not understand. 
He would neither do it himself, nor let me do it. 
The majesty of good things is such, that the confines of them are 

reverend. 
Whether he intends to do so or not, I cannot tell. 
Send me such articles only, as are adapted to this market. 
So far as I am able to judge, the book is well written. 
JVo errors are so trivial as not to deserve correction. 
It will neither improve the mind, nor delight the fancy. 
The one is as deserving as the other. 
There is no condition so secure that it cannot admit of change. 



264 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Do you think this is as good as that ? 

The relations are so obscure that they require much thought. 
None is so fierce as to dare stir him up. 

There was no man so sanguine as not to apprehend some ill con- 
sequence. 
I must be so candid as to own that I do not understand it. 
The book is not so well printed as it ought to be. 

As still he sat as those who wait, 

Till judgement speak the doom of fate. 

RULE XVII. 

Note 1. 

She finds a difficulty in fixing her mind. 

This affair did not fall under his cognizance. 

He was accused of betraying his trust. 

There was no water, and he died of thirst. 

I have no occasion/or his services. 

You may safely confide in him. 

I entertain no prejudice against him. 

You may rely on what I tell you. 

Virtue and vice differ \vide\y from each other. 

This remark is founded on truth. 

After many toils, we arrived at our journey's end, 

I will tell you a story very different/row. that. 

Their conduct is agreeable to their profession. 

Excessive pleasures pass from satiety into disgust. 

I turned in disgust from the spectacle. 

They are gone into the meadow. 

Let this be divided amoiig the three. 

The shells were broken into pieces. 

The deception has passed with every one. 

They never quarrel ivith each other. 

Under every difficulty — or, Amidst all difficulties, he persevered. 

Let us go up stairs. 

I was in London, when this happened. 

We were detained at home, and disappointed of our walk. 

This orginated in mistake. 

The Bridewell is situated on the west of the City-Hall, and it has 
no communication with the other buildings. 

I am disappointed in the work ; it is very inferior to what I ex- 
pected. 

RULE XIX. 

Note 1. 

Man's chief good is an upright mind. 

I will not destroy the city for ten's sake. 

Moses's rod was turned into a serpent. 

They are wolves in sJieeps' clothing. 

The tree is known by its fruit. 

This privilege is not theirs, any more than it is yours 



KEY. 265 

Yet lie was gentle as soft summer airs, 

Had grace for others' 1 sins, but none for theirs. 

Note 2. 

There is but little difference between the Earth's and Venus's di- 
ameter. 
This hat is John's, or James's. 
The store is opposite to Morris and Company's. 
This palace had been the grand sultan Mahomet's. 
This was the Apostle Paul's advice. 
Were Cain's occupation and Abel's the same ? 
Were Cain's and Abel's occupation the same ? 
Were Cain and Abel's occupations the same ? 
Were Cain's and Abel's parents the same ? 
Were Cain's parents and AbeVs the same ? 
Was Cain and Abel's father there ? 
Were Cain and Abel's parents there ? 

Thy Maker's will has placed thee here, 
A Maker wise and good. 

Note 3. 

The government of the world is not left to chance. 
He was heir to the son of Louis the Sixteenth. 
The throne we honour, is the people's choice, 
We met at the house of my brother's partner. 
An account of the proceedings of Alexander's court. 
Here is a copy of the Constitution of the Teachers' Society,, in the 
city of New- York. 

RULE XX. 

Tliee only have I chosen. 
Whom shall we send on this errand ? 

My father allowed my brother and me to accompany him. 
Him that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. 
Whom should I meet but my old friend ! 
How long will it take you to do it ? 
He accosts whomever he meets. 
Whomsoever the court favours, is safe. 
Them that honor me, I will honour. 
Whom do you think I saw the other day ? 
Note 1. 

The ambitious are always seeking to aggrandize themselves, 

1 must premise three circumstances. 

This society does not allow personal reflections. 

False accusation cannot diminish real merit. 

His servants ye are ivhom ye obey. 

Note 2. 

Good keeping fattens the herd. 

We endeavoured to reconcile the parties. 

Being weary, he sat down. 

Go, flee away into the land of Judah. 

The popular lords did not fail to enlarge on the subject 

24 



266 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note 3. 

The benefit of their recantation was refused them. 
Temporal riches are not promised to believers. 
Several beautiful pictures were shown us. 
But, unfortunately, the favour was denied me. 
A high compliment was paid you. 
The question has never been asked me. 

RULE XXI. 

We thought it was thou. 

I would act the same part, if I were he. 

It could not have been she. 

It is not /that he is angry with. 

They believed it to be me. 

It was thought to be he. 

If it had been she, she would have told u? 

We know it to be them. 

Who do you think it is ? 

Whom do you suppose it to be ? 

We did not know who they were. 

Thou art h* whom they described. 

Impossible ! it can't be J. 

Who did he think you were ? 

Who say ye that I am ? 

RULE XXII. 

Let that remain a secret between you and me. 

I lent the book to someone, I know not whom. 

Let no quarrel occur among you. 

Whom did he inquire for ? Thee. 

From him that is needy, turn not away. 

We are all accountable, each for his own acts. 

Does that boy know whom he is speaking to ? 

I bestow my favours on whomsoever I will. 

RULE XXIII. 

Please to excuse my son's absence. 
Cause every man to go out from me. 
Forbid them to enter the garden. 
Do you not perceive it to move ? 
Allow others to discover your merit. 
He was seen to go in at that gate. 
Permit me to pass this way. 

RULE XXIV. 

I felt a chilling sensation creep over me, 

I have heard him mention the subject. 

Bid the boys come in immediately. 

I dare say he has not got home yet. 

Let no rash promise be made. 

We sometimes see bad men honoured. 

A good reader will make himself distinctly heard. 



KEY. 267 

RULE XXV. 

/being young, they deceived me. 

They refusing to comply, I withdrew. 

Thou being present, he would not tell what he knew. 

The child is lost ; and J, whither shall I go ? 

She quick relapsing to her former state, 
With boding fears approach the serving train- 
There all thy gifts and graces we display, 
Thou, only thou, directing all our way. 

RULE XXVI. 

He will maintain his cause, though he lose his estate. 

They will fine thee, unless thou offer an excuse. 

I shall walk outin the afternoon, unless it ram. 

Let him take heed lest befall. 

On condition that he come, I consent to stay. 

If he be but discreet, he will succeed. 

Take heed that thou speak not to Jacob. 

If thou cast me off, I shall be miserable. 

Send them to me, if thou please. 

If I were to write, he would not regard it. 

If thou felt as I do, we should soon decide. 

Though thou shed thy blood in the cause, it w r ould but prove thee 

sincerely a fool. 
If thou lovedhim, there would be more evidence of it. 
I believed, whatever were the issue, all would be well. 
If love were never feigned, it would appear to be scarce. 
There fell from his eyes, as it loere scales, 
If he vjere an impostor, he must have been detected. 

Were death denied, e'en fools would w T ishto die. 

Were I as wealthy as a South-sea dream, 

Wishing is an expedient to be poor. 

Though he seems to be artless, he has deceived us. 

If he thinks as he speaks, he may safely be trusted. 

Though this event is strange, it certainly did happen. 

If thou lovest tranquillity of mind, seek it not abroad. 

If seasons of idleness are dangerous, what must a continued habit 

of it prove ? 
Though he was a son, yet learned he obedience by the things which 

he suffered. 

I knew thou wast not slow to hear. 

Note 1. 

The work was fi rush ul last week. 

He has been out of employment this fortnight. 

This mode of expression wtfsformeily in use. 

I shall be much obliged to him, if he will attend to it. 

I will pay the vows which my lips uttered when I was in trouble, 

I have compassion on the multitude, because they have continued 

with me now three days. 
I thought, by the accent, that he ivas speaking to his child, 



268 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

And he that had been dead, sat up and began t© speak. 

Thou hast borne, and hast had patience, and for ray name's sake 

hast laboured, and hast not fainted. 
Ye will not come unto me, that ye may have life. 
At the end of this quarter, I shall have been at this school two 

years. 
We have done no more than it was our duty to do. 

Note 2. 

We expected that he would arrive last night. 

Our friends intended to meet us. 

We hoped to see you. 

He would not have been allowed to enter. 

Note 3. 

The doctor affirmed, that fever always produces thirst. 
The ancients asserted, that virtue wits own reward. 
PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES. 

There is a spirit in man ; and the inspiration of the Almighty giveth 

him understanding. 
My people do not consider. 
I have never heard vshom they invited. 

Then hasten thy return ; for, thou away, 
Nor lustre has the sun, nor joy the day. 

I am as well as when you were here. 

That elderly man, him that came in late, I supposed to be the su- 
perintendent. 

All the virtues of mankind are to be counted upon a few fingers ; 
but their follies and vices are innumerable. 

It must indeed be confessed, that a lampoon or a satire does not 
carry in it robbery or murder. 

There were more persons than one engaged in this affair. 

A man who lacks ceremony, has need of great merit. 

A wise man avoids the showing o/any excellence in trifles. Bet- 
ter — forbears to sfioiv — or, is careful not to show, fee. 

The first and most important female quality, is sweetness of temper. 

We choose rather to lead than Jo follow. 

•Ignorance is the mother of fear, as well as of admiration. 

He must fear many, whom many fear. 

Every one partakes of honour bestowed on the worthy. 

The king and the queen were not at all deceived — or, Neither the 
king nor the queen was at all deceived. 

Were there r.o difference, there would be no choice. 

•I would rather have been informed 

Must thou return this evening? 

Life and death are in the power of the tongue. 

I saw a person that I took to be her. 

Let him be who he may, I shall not stop. 

This is certainly a useful invention. 

' It is no more than justice,' quoth the farmer. 

Great improvements have been made. 



KEY. 269 

What I have heard, is undoubtedly true. 
The nation is torn by feuds which threaten its ruin. 
The account of these transactions, was incorrect. 
Godliness with contentment, is great gain. 

The number of sufferers has not been ascertained. 

There is one or more of them yet in confinement. 

They have chosen the wisest part. 

He spent his whole life in doing good. 

They scarcely know that temperance is a virtue. 

I am afraid that I have laboured in vain. 

Mischief on itself doth back recoil. 

This construction sounds rather harsh. 

What is the cause of the leaves' curling. 

Was it thou, that made the noise ? 

Let thy flock clothe the naked. 

Wisdom and knowledge are granted unto thee. 

His conduct was surprisingly strange. 

This woman taught my brother and me to read. 

Let your promises be such as you can perform. 

We shall sell them in the state in which they now are. 

We may, however, add this observation. 

This came into fashion when I was young. 

I did not use the leaves, but pie root, of the plant. 

We have used every means in our power. 

Pass away, thou inhabitant of Saphir. 

Give every syllable, and every letter, i^ proper sound. 

To know exactly how much mischief may be ventured upon with 
impunity, is knowledge enough for some folks. 

Every leaf, and every twig, teems with life. 

I rejoiced at this intelligence. 

At this stage of advancement, the pupil finds little difficulty in un- 
derstanding the passive and the neuter verbs. 

I was afraid that I should lose the parcel. 

Which of all these patterns is the prettiest f 

They that [or who] despise instruction, shall not be wise. 

Both thou and thy advisers have mistaken your interest. 

An idle soul shall suffer hunger. 

The lips of knowledge are a precious jew 7 el. 

My cousin and I are requested to attend. 

I can only say, that such is my belief. 

This is different from the conscience' being made to feel. 

Here is ground/or leaving the world with peace. 

Whither are you all running so fast ? 

Man is the noblest work of creation. 

Of all crimes this is the most atrocious. 

The tribes that I visited, are partially civilized. 

Hence I conclude, they are in error. 

The girls' books are neater than the boys'. 

I intended to transcribe it. 

Shall a character made up of the very worst passions, pass under 
the name of gentleman P 

Rhoda ran in, and told that Peter stood before the gate. 

24 * 



270 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

What are latitude and longitude ? 

Cicero was more eloquent than any other Roman — or, Cicero 
was the most eloquent of the Romans. 

Who dares apologize for Pizarro ? — which is but another name for 
rapacity ! 

Tell me whether you will do it or not. 

After the straitest [strictest] sect of our religion, I lived a Phari- 
see. 

I know who it was that did it. 

Doubt not, little though there be, 
That I'll cast a crumb to thee. 

This rule is the best that can be given. 

I have never seen any other way. 

These are poor amends for the men and treasures tjiat we have lost, 

Dost thou know those boys ? 

This is part of the estate of my uncle's father. 

Many people never learn to speak correctly. 

Some people are rash, and others timid : these apprehend too much, 

those too little. 
Is it lawful for us to give tribute to Caesar or not? 
Give no more trouble than you cannot possibly help. 
J no sooner saw my face in it, than I was startled atthe shortness of it. 
Every person is answerable for his own conduct. 

They are men that scorn a mean action, and that will exert them- 

selves to serve you. 
1 do not recollect ever to have paid it. 
The stoics taught, that all crimes are equal. 
Every one of these theories is now exploded. 
Any of these four will answer. 

There is no situation in which he would be happy. 

The boy that you thought so clever, has been detected in stealing, 

I will meet thee there, if thou please. 

He is not so sick but that he can laugh. 

These clothes do not fit me. 

The audience were all very attentive. 

Was the master, or were any of the scholars, in the room ? 

His father and mother's consent was asked. 

Who is he supposed to be ? 

He is a venerable old man. 

It was then my purpose to visit Sicily. 

It is only^ to the learner, and him that is in doubt, that this assis- 
tance is recommended. 

There is not the least hope of his recovery. 

Anger and impatience are always unreasonable. 

In his letters, there is not only correctness, but elegance. 

Opportunity to do good, is the highest preferment that a noble 
mind desires. 

The year in which he died, is not mentioned. 

Had I knoivn it, I should not have gone. 

Was it thou that spoke to me ? 

The house is pleasantly situated. 

He did it as, privately as he possibly could. 



KEY. 271 

The subduing of our passions, is the noblest of conquests. 

James is more diligent than thou. 

Rain is seldom or never seen at Lima. 

He appears to be excessively diffident. 

The number of our days is with thee. 

Asa father pitieth his children, so the Lord pitieth them that fear 

him. 
The circumstances of this case are different. 
Well for us, if some other such men should rise ! 
A man that is young in years, may be old in hours, if he lose no 

time. 
The chief captain, fearing that Paul would be pulled into pieces by 

them, commanded the soldiers to go down, and to take him 

by force from among them. 

That brother should not war with brother, 
JYer one despise and grieve an other. 



APPENDIX I. 

(ORTHOGRAPHY.) 

OF THE SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 
A 

A has four sounds properly its own : 

1. The open, long, or slender ; as m fame, favour, efficacious. 

2: The close or short; as in bat, banner, balance. 

3. The middle ; as in far , father , aha, comma, scoria, sofa, 

4. The broad ; as in wall, warm, water. 

The only proper diphthong in which a is put first, is the word 
ay; in which a has its middle sound, and y that of open e. 

Aa, when pronounced as an improper diphthong, takes the sound 
of close a ; as in Balaam, Canaan, Isaac. 

JE, a Latin improper diphthong, generally has the sound of open 
e ; as in Ccesar, (enigma, poean ; sometimes that of close e ; as in 
aphceresis, diccresis, et c&tera. Some authors reject the a, and write 
Cesar; enigma, &c. 

Ai, an improper diphthong, generally has the sound of open a; as 
in bail, sail, vain. In a final unaccented syllable, it takes the 
sound of close i ; as in certain, fountain, mountain: in said, saith, 
again, and against, that of close e : and in the name Britain, that of 
close u. 

Ao,3lH improper diphthong, occurs only in the word gaol; now 
frequently written, as it is pronounced, jail. 

Au, an improper diphthong, is generally sounded like broad a; as 
in cause, caught. Before n and an other consonant, it has the sound 
of middle a ; as in aunt, flaunt, launch, laundry. Gauge is pro- 
nounced gage. 

Aw,-<m improper diphthong, is always sounded like broad a; as in 
draw, drawn, drawl. 

Ay, an improper diphthong, like ai, has the sound of open a ; as 
in day, pay, delay : in sayst, says, that of close e. Quay is pronoun- 
ced like key. 

B 

B has but one sound ; as in boy, robber, cub. 

B is silent before t, or after m in the same syllable ; as in debt, 
debtor, dumb, lamb. It is heard in subtile, fine, but not in subtle, 
cunning. 

c 

C before a, o, u, I, r, t, or when it ends a syllable, is hard like 
k ; asm can, come, curb, clay, crab, act, action, accent, flaccid. 



APPENDIX I. 273 

C before e, i, or y, is soft like s; as in cent, civil, decency. 

C before ea, ia, ie, io, or eou, when the accent precedes, sounds 
like sh ; as in ocean, special, grdcious, cetaceous. 

C is silent in czar, czarina, victuals, indict, muscle, corpuscle. 

Ch is generally soanded like tch ; as in church, chance, child. 
But in words derived from the learned languages, it has the sound 
of k : as in character, scheme, catechise, chorus, chyle, patriarch, 
drachma, magna charta ; except chart, charter, charity. Ch, in 
derived from the French, takes the sound of sh; as in chaise, 
mar iine. 

Jrrh, before a vowel, is pronounced ark; as in archives, arch- 
angel, Archipelago : except in arched, archer, archery, archenemy. 
Be tore a consonant, it is pronounced artch ; as in archbishop, arch- 
duke. 

Ch is silent in schedule, schism, yacht, drachm. 

D 

The general sound of d, is heard in dog, eddy, did. 

D, in the termination ed preceded by a sharp consonant, takes 
the sound of t, when the e is suppressed : as in faced, stuffed, crack- 
ed, tripped, passed ; pronounced, faste, stuff, crackt, tript, past. 

D before ia, ie, io, or eou, when the accent precedes, generally 
sounds Hk^/; as in Indian, soldier, tedious, hideous. So in ver- 
dure, arduous, education. 

E 

E has three sounds properly its own : 

1. The open or long ; as in vie, mere, menial, melodious. 

2 The close or short ; as in men, merry, ebony. 

3. The obscure ; as in open, garden, shovel, able. This third 
sound is scarcely perceptible, and is barely sufficient to articulate 
the consonant and form a syllable. 

E final is mute; as in age, eve, ice, ore. Except, 1. In the 
words be, he, me, ice, she, and the, in which it has the open sound. 

2. In Greek and Latin words, in which it has its open sound, and 
forms a distinct syllable ; as in Penelope, Pasipha'e, Cyane'e, Gar- 
gaphi'e, Arsino'e. apostrophe, catastrophe, simile, extempore, epitome. 

3. In the terminations ere, gre, tre, in which it has the sound of 
close u ; as in acre, meagre, centre. 

Mute e generally lengthens the preceding vowel ; as in cane, 
here, pine, cone, tune, thyme. 

E, before an other vowel, in general, either forms an improper 
diphthong or a separate syllable. 

Ea, an improper diphthong, mostly sounds like open e ; as in ear, 
fear, tea : frequently, like close e ; as in earl, head, health : some- 
times like open a ; as in steak, bear, forswear : rarely, like middle a ; 
as in heart, hearth, hearken. Ea unaccented, sounds like close u; 
as in vengeance, pageant. 

Eau, a French triphthong, sounds like open o ; as in beau, flam- 



274 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

beau, portmanteau, bureau : except in beauty and its compounds, 
in which it is pronounced like openu. 

Ee, an improper diphthong, has the sounds of open e; as in eel, 
sheep, tree. The contractions e'er and ne'er, are pronounced air 
and nair. 

Ei, an improper diphthong, mostly sounds like open a ; as in 
reign, veil : frequently, like open e ; as in deceit, either, neither, 
seize: sometimes, like open i ; as i " height, sleight: often, in un- 
accented syllables, like close i; as in foreign, forfeit, surfeit, sover- 
eign : rarely, like close e ; as in heifer, nonpareil. 

Eo, an improper diphthong, in people sounds like open e ; in 
feoff, feoffment, leopard, jeopardy, like close e ; in yeoman, like 
open o ; in George, georgic, like close o ; in dungeon, puncheon, 
sturgeon, fyc. like close u ; Ftod, feodal, feodatory, are now writ- 
ten as they are pronounced, feud, feudal, feudatory. 

Eu and ew have the diphthongal sound of open u; as in feud, 
deuce ; jew, dew, few, new. These diphthongs, when initial, sound 
like yu. Nouns beginning with this sound, require the article a, 
and not an, before them ; as, A European, a ewer. After r or rh, 
eu and ew are commonly sounded like oo ; as in drew, grew, screw, 
rheumatism. 

In sew and Shreivsbury, ew sounds like openo. Shew and strew, 
are properly spelled, as they are pronounced, show, strow. 

Ey, accented, has the sound of open a ; as in bey, f$ey, survey: 
unaccented, it has the sound of open e .- as in alley, valley, money. 
Key and ley are pronounced kee, lee. Eye is pronounced like 
open i. 



Fhas one unvaried sound, which is heard in fan, effort, staff 
except of, which, when simple, is pronounced ov. 

G 

G before a, o, u, I, r, or at the end of a word, is hard ; as in 
game, gone, gull, glory, grace, log, bog. 

G before e, i, or y, is soft ; as in gem, ginger, elegy. Except, 1. 
In get, give, geivgaw, finger, and a few other words. 2. When a 
syllable is added to a word ending in g ; as, long, longer, fog. 

foggy- 

G is silent before m or n in the same syllable; as in phlegm, 
apothegm, gnaw, resign. 

G when silent, usually lengthens the preceding vowel ; as in 
sign, impugn. 

Gh at the beginning of a word ; has the sound of g hard ; as in 
ghost, ghastly : in other situations, it is generally silent; as in high, 
mighty, plough, bought, through, 

Gh final sometimes sounds like/; as in laugh, rough, tough: 
and sometimes, like ghard; as in burgh. In lough, shough, it 
sounds like k. 



APPENDIX I. 275 



H 

The sound of h, (though it is articulate and audible when prop- 
erly uttered,) is little more than an aspirate breathing. It is heard 
in hat, hit, hot, hut, adhere. 

H at the beginning of words, is always sounded ; except in heir, 
herb, honest, honour, hospital, hostler, hour, humble, humour, and 
their compounds 

H after r, is always silent ; as, rheum, rhetoric. 

if final, preceded by a vowel, is always silent; as, ah, oh, Sarah. 
Nineveh . 

I 

/ has three sounds properly its own. 

1. The open or long; as in life, fine, time, find, bind, child, mild, 
wild, pint. This is a diphthongal sound, and is equivalent to the 
sound of middle a and that of open e quickly united. 

2. The close or short ; as in ink, think, sinking. 

3. The feeble ; as in divest, doctrinal, diversity. This sound is 
equivalent to that of open e uttered feebly, /generally has this 
sound, when it occurs at the end of an unaccented syllable : ex- 
cept at the end of Latin words, where it is long ; as in literati. In 
some words, (principally from other modern languages,) i has the 
full sound of open e, under the accent ; as in Porto Rico, machine, 
magazine, antique, shire. 

Accented i followed by a vowel, has its open sound ; and the 
vowels belong to separate syllables ; as in pliant, diet, satiety, 
violet, pious. 

Unaccented i followed by a vowel, has its feeble sound ; as in 
expatiate, obedient, various, abstemious. I in this situation, readily 
coalesces with the vowel which follows, and is often sunk into the 
same syllable, forming a proper diphthong ; as in fustian, quotient, 
question, bilious, vicious, precious. The terminations cion,sion, and 
Hon, are pronounced shun ; cious and tious are pronounced shus. 

Ie is commonly an improper diphthong. le final has the sound 
of open i; as in die, lie, pie, tie. Ie medial generally has the sound 
of open e : as in grief, thief, grenadier. leu and iew sound like open 
u ; as in lieu, adieu, view. 



J always has the sound of soft g; except in hallelujah, better 
written as it is pronounced, halleluiah. 

K 

K has the sound of c hard; and oecurs where c would have its 
soft sound : as in keep, kind, smoky. 

K before n is mute; as in knave, know, knuckle. It is never 
doubled, except in the name Habakkuk. C before it, doubles the 
sound, and shortens the preceding vowel, as in cockle, wkked. 



276 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



L 

Lhas a soft liquid sound ; as in line, lily, roll, follow. 
L is sometimes mute ; as in alms, almonds, calf, chalk, could, 
would, should. 

M 

M has but one sound ; as in map, murmur, mammon. Comptroller 
is pronounced controller, 

N 

JVhas two sounds : the pure ; as in nun, banner, cannon; and the 
ringingsound of ng ; as in think, mangle, conquer, congress, singing, 
twinkling. The Jatter sound should be carefully preserved in all 
words ending in ing; and in such others as require it. 

N final preceded by m, is mute ; as in hymn, solemn. 

o 

has three sounds properly its own : 

1. The open or long ; as in no, note, opiate, opacity, domain. 

2. The close or short ; as in not, nor, torrid, dollar. 

3. The slender ; as in prove, move, ivho, to, do, tomb. 

O in many words sounds like close u ; as in love, above, son, come, 
nothing, dost, attorney, gallon, dragon In the termination on, im- 
mediately after the accent, o is often sunk into a sound scarcely 
perceptible like that of obscure e ; as in mason, person. One is pro- 
nounced wun. 

0a an improper diphthong, has the sound of open o ; as in boat, 
coal,roaeh : except in broad, and groat, which have the sound of 
broad a. 

Oe, an improper diphthong, when final, has the sound of open o ; 
as in doe, foe, throe : except in canoe, shoe, pronounced canoo, shoo. 
(E, a Latin diphthong, generally sounds like open e ; as in Anlozci. 
foetus : sometimes like close e; as m foetid. Some authors reject the 
o, and write fetid, &c 

Oiis generally a proper diphthong, uniting the sound of close o 
or broad a, and that of open e ; as in boil, coil, soil, rejoice. But the 
vowels sometimes belong to separate syllables ; as in stoic. Oi un- 
accented, sometimes has the sound of close i; as in avoirdupois,con~ 
noisseur, tortoise. Choir is now frequently written, as it is pronoun- 
ced, quire 

Oo, an improper diphthong, generally has the slender sound of 
© ; as in coo, too, woo, fool, room. It has a shorter sound in foot, 
good, ivood, stood, -wool ; that of close u, in blood and flood ; and that 
oiopen o, in door, and floor. 

Ou is generally a proper diphthong, uniting the sound of close o, 
and that of u sounded as slender o or oo ; as in bound, found, sound, 
ounce, thou,. 

Ou is also an improper diphthong ; and, as such, it has six 
sounds ; 



APPENDIX I. 277 

1. That of close u; as in rough, tough, young, flourish. 

2. That of broad a ; as in ought, bought, thought. 

3. That of open o ; as in court, dough, four, though. 

4. That of close o ; only in cough, trough, lough, shough. 

5. That of slender o or oo ; as in soup, you, through. 

6. That of oo, shortened ; only in would, could, should. 

Ow generally sounds like the proper diphthong ou ; as in brown, 
dowry, now, shower: but it often has the sound of open o ; as in 
owe, know. 

Oy is always sounded like oi ; as in joy, toy. 



P has but one sound : which is heard in pen, sup, supper. It is 
sometimes silent ; as in psalm, receipt, corps. 

Ph generally sounds like /; as in philosophy. In Stephen and nt 
phetv,ph has the sound of v. The h after p, is mute in diphthong, 
triphthong, naphtha, ophthalmic ; and both the p and h, in apoph- 
thegm, phthisis, phthisical. From the last three words ph is some- 
times dropped. 



Q 



Qhas the sound of k, and is always followed by u sounded like 
w ; as in queen, quarter, request. The u is sometimes silent ; as in 
coquet, liquor, burlesque. 

R 

R, at the beginning of words, has a rough sound ; as in rose, 
roam : in other situations, a smoother one ; as in proud, harrow^ 
barber. 



S has a sharp, hissing sound ; as in sad, sister, thus : and a flat 
sound, like that of z ; as in rose, dismal. 

S, at the beginning of words, or after any of the sharp conson- 
ants, is always sharp ; as in see, steps, cliff's, sits, stocks, smiths. 

S, after any of the flat mutes, or at the end of words when not 
preceded by a sharp consonant, is generally flat; as in eyes, trees, 
beds, bags, calves. Ss is generally sharp. 

S, in the termination sion, takes the sound of sh, after a conso- 
nant ; as in aspersion, session : and that of zh, after a vowel ; as in 
invasion, elision. 

S is silent in isle, island, aisle, demesne, viscount. 



The general sound off, is heard in time, tierce, letter, set. 

T, immediately after the accent, takes the sound oftch, before u t 
and generally also before eou : as in nature, feature, virtue, right- 
eous, courteous : when s precedes, it takes this sound before ia or 
k> i as in fustian, bastian. But the general sound of t after the.ao 

25 



278 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

cent, when followed by i and another vowel, is that of sh ; as hi 
creation, patient, cautious. 

T is sometimes silent ; as in often, rustle, whistle. 

Th represents an elementary sound. It is either sharp, as in 
thing, ethical, thinketh : or flat, as in this, whither, thither. 

Th initial is sharp ; as in thank : except in than, that, the, thee, 
their, them, then, thence, there, thess, they, thine, this, thither, those, 
thou, thus, thy, and their compounds. 

Th final is also sharp ; as in south : except in beneath, booth, ivith, 
and several verbs in th, which are frequently (and more properly) 
written with final e ; as soothe, smoothe, bequeathe. 

Th medial is sharp, when preceded or followed by a consonant ; 
as in swarthy, athwart : except in brethren, burthen, farther, farthing, 
murther, northern, vjorthy. 

Th between two vowels, is generally flat in words purely Eng- 
lish ; as in gather, neither, whither : and sharp in words from the 
learned anguages ; as in atheist, ether, method. 

Th, in Thames, Thomas, thyme, asthma, phthisic, and their com- 
pounds, is pronounced like t. 

u 

£7 has three sounds properly its own : 

1. The open, long, or diphthongal ; as in tube, cubic, juvenile. 

2. The close or short ; as in tub, butter, justice. 

3. The middle ; as in pull, pulpit, artful. 

Open u is equivalent in sound to you, and requires the article «, 
and not an, before it ; as, a union. 

Bury and busy are pronounced berry, bizzy. Their compounds 
are similar. 

After r or rh, open u, and the diphthongs ue and ui, take the 
sound of oo ; as in rude, rhubarb, rue, rueful, fruit, fruitful. 

U, in the proper diphthongs ua, ue, ui, uo, uy, has the sound of w, 
or oo feeble ; as in persuade, query, quell, quiet, languid, quote, ob- 
loquy. 

Ua, an improper diphthong, has the sound — 1. of middle 
guard, guardian : 2. of close a; as in guarantee, piquant: 
obscure e; as in victuals and its compounds: 4. of open u ; 
mantuamaker. 

Ue, an improper diphthong, has the sound — 1. of openu; 
blue, ensue, ague : 2. of close e ; as in guest : 3. of obscure e ; 
league, antique. 

Ui, an improper diphthong-, has the sound — 1. of open i; 
guide, guile .- 2. of close i ; as in languid, circuit .- 3. of open 
in juice, suit. 

Uy, an improper diphthong, has the sound — 1. oiopeny; as in 
buy : 2. of feeble y, or open e feeble ; as in plaguy. 

V 

V always has the sound oifflat; as in love, vulture. 

w 

W j as a consonant, has the sound heard in wine } win* 



a; 


as 


3. 


of 


as 


in 


as 


in 


; as 


in 


as in 


it; 


as 



APPENDIX I. 279 

^"before h,\s pronounced as if it followed the h; as in what, 
-when. Before r, it is always silent ; as in wrath, wrench : so in whole, 
whoop, sword, answer. 

W is never used alone as a vowel. In a diphthong, when heard, 
it has the power of u ; but it is frequently silent. 



Xhas a sharp sound, like ks ; as in ox : and a flat one, like gs; 
as in example. 

X is sharp, when it ends an accented syllable ; as in exit, excel- 
lence : or when it precedes an accented syllable beginning with a 
consonant ; as in expound, expunge. 

X unaccented, is generally flat when the next syllable begins 
with a vowel ; as in exist, exotic. 

X initial, in Greek proper names, has the sound of 8; as in Xan~ 
thus, Xantippe, Xenophon, Xerxes. 

Y 

Y, as a consonant, has the sound heard in yard, youth. 
Y, as a vowel, has the same sounds as i : 

1. The open or long ; as in cry, thyme, cycle. 

2. The close or short ; as in system, symptom, cynic. 

3. The feeble ; (like open e feeble ;) as in cymar, cycloidal, mercy. 
The vowels i and y have, in general, exactly the same sound, 

under similar circumstances ; and, in forming derivatives, the one 
is often changed for the other : as in city, cities ; tie, tying; easy, 
easily. 



Z always has the sound of s flat ; as in breeze, zenith. 



2B0 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

APPENDIX II 

(ETYMOLOGY.) 

OF DERIVATION. 

Derivation is a species of Etymology, which explains the va- 
rious methods by which those derivative words which are not 
formed by mere grammatical inflections, are deduced from their 
primitives. 

Most of those words which are regarded as primitives in Eng- 
lish, may be traced to ulterior sources, and many of them are found 
to be compounds or derivatives in other languages. But as the 
learner is supposed to be unacquainted with those languages, we 
shall not go beyond the precincts of our own ; except to show 
him the origin and primitive import of some of our definitive and 
connecting particles, and to explain the prefixes and terminations 
which are frequently employed to form English derivatives. 

The rude and cursory languages of barbarous nations, to whom 
literature is unknown, are among those transitory things which by 
the hand of time are irrecoverably buried in oblivion. The fabric 
of the English language is undoubtedly of Saxon origin ; but what 
was the form of the language spoken by the Saxons, when, about 
the year 449, they entered Britain, canriot now be known. It was 
probably a dialect of the Gothic or Teutonic. This Anglo-Saxon 
dialect gradually improved, as Christianity, civilization, and knowl- 
edge, advanced the arts of life in Britain; and, as early as the 
ninth century, it became a language capable of expressing all the 
sentiments of a civilized people. From this period, its progress 
may be traced by means of writings which remain ; but it can 
scarcely be called English till about the thirteenth century. And 
for two or three centuries later, it was so different from the modern 
English, as to be scarcely intelligible to most readers ; but, grad- 
ually improving, by means upon which we cannot here dilate, it 
at length became what we now find it, a language, copious, strong, 
refined, and capable of no inconsiderable degree of harmony. 

The following is an explanation of the Saxon letters employed 
below : 



a 


b 


c <i 


e 


P £ b 


i j k 1 m D 





p q 


a 


b 


c b 


e 


V 3 b 


i k 1 m n 





P C P 






r 


s 


t th u 


v w x y z. 










P 


r 


c ft u 
OF THE 


v p x y z. 

ARTICLES. 







According to Home Tooke, the is the Saxon fte from ftean 
to take; and is nearly equivalent in meaning to that or those. We 



APPENDIX II. 281 

find it written in ancient works,' ye, se, see, Ce, be, and the. 

An is the SaxKJn cen, ane, an, one ; and, by dropping n before a 
consonant becomes a. Gawen Douglas, an ancient English writer, 
wrote ane, even before a consonant ; as, " Ant book," — " ant lang 
spere," — " ant volume." 

OF NOUNS. 

In English, Nouns are derived from nouns, from adjectives, from 
verbs, and from participles. 
I. Nouns are derived from nouns: 

1. By adding ship, dom, rick, wick, or, ate, hood, or head ; as fel- 
low, fellowship ; king, kingdom; bishop, bishoprick ; bailiff \ baili- 
wick ; senate, senator; tetrarch, tretrarchate; child, childhood; God, 
Godhead. These generally denote dominion, office, or character. 

2. By adding ian: as music, musician ; physic, physician. These 
generally denote profession. 

3. By adding y or ery : as, slave, slavery ; fool, foolery ; scene, 
scenery ; cutler, cutlery ; grocer, grocery. These sometimes de- 
note a state, or habit of action ; sometimes, an artificer's wares or 
shop. 

4. By adding age or ade : as, patron, patronage; porter, porter' 
age ; band, bandage ; lemon, lemonade. 

5. By adding kin, let, ling, ock, el or erel : as lamb, lambkin; ri- 
ver, rivulet; duck, duckling ; hill, hillock ; cock, cockerel. These de- 
note little things, and are called diminutives. 

6. By adding 1st : as psalm, psalmist ; botany, botanist. These de- 
note persons devoted to, or skilled in, the subject expressed by the 
primitive. 

7. By prefixing an adjective, or an other noun, and forming a 
compound word ; as, holiday, foreman, statesman, tradesman. 

II. Nouns are derived from adjectives : 

1. By adding ness, ity, ship, dom, or hood: as, good, goodness ; 
real, reality; hard, hardship ; wise, wisdom ; false, falsehood. 

2. By changing t into ce or cy : as radiant, radiance ; consequent^ 
consequence ; flagrant, flagrancy ; current, currency. 

3. By changing some of the letters, and adding t or th : as, long, 
length ; broad, breadth ; high, height. The nouns included under 
1hese three heads, generally denote abstract qualities, and are cal- 
led abstract nouns. 

4. By adding ard : as, drunk, drunkard ; dull, dullard. These 
denote the character of a person. 

5. By adding ist : as, sensual, sensualist ; royal, royalist. These 
denote persons devoted, addicted, or attached, to something. 

III. Nouns are derived from verbs : 

1. By adding ment, ance, ure, or age : as, punish, punishment ; re- 
pent, repentance ; forfeit, forfeiture ; stow, stowage ; equip, equi- 
page. 

2. By changing the termination of the verb, into se, ce,sion, Hon, 
ation, or ition : as, expand, expanse, expansion; pretend, pretence, 
pretension; invent, invention', create, creation ; omit , omission ; pro- 
vide, provision; reform, reformation; oppose, opposition. These de- 
note the act of doing, or the thing done, 

25 * 



282 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. By adding er or or : as, hunt, hunter ; write, writer ; collect, col- 
lector. These generally denote the doer. 

4. Nouns and verbs are sometimes alike in orthography, but dif- 
ferent in pronunciation : as, a house, to house ; a reb'el, to rebel' ; a 
rec'ord, to record 1 '. Sometimes they are wholly alike, and are dis- 
tinguished only by the construction: as, love, to love ; fear, to fear ; 
tfeep,4o sleep. 

IV. Nouns are often derived from participles in ing. Such 
nouns are usually distinguished from participles, only by their con- 
struction : as, a meeting, the understanding, murmurings, disputing. 

OF ADJECTIVES. 

In English, Adjectives are derived from nouns, from adjectives, 
irom verbs, or from participles. 

I. Adjectives are derived from nouns: 

1. By adding ous, ious, eous, y, ly, ic, al, teal, or ine : (sometimes, 
with an omission or change of some of the final letters:) as, dan- 
ger, dangerous ; glory , glorious ; right, righteous ; rock, rocky ; cost, 
rostly ; poet, poetic ; nation, national ; method, methodical ; vertex, 
vertical ; clergy, clerical ; adamant, adamantine. Adjectives thus 
formed, generally apply the properties of their primitives, to the 
nouns to which they relate. 

2. By adding ful : as, fear, fearful ; cheer, cheerful ; grace, grace- 
ful. These denote abundance. 

3. By adding some : as, burden, burdensome ; game, gamesome. 
These denote plenty, but with some diminution. 

4. By adding e n: as, -oak, oaken; silk, silken. These generally 
denote the matter of which a thing is made. 

5. By adding ly Or ish ; as, friend, friendly; child, childish. 
These denote resemblance : ly signifies like. 

6. By adding able or ible : as, fashion, fashionable ; access, acces- 
sible. But these terminations are generally added to verbs. 

7. By adding less : as, house, houseless ; death, deathless. These 
denote privation or exemption. 

8. Adjectives from proper names, take various terminations : as, 
America, American; England, English; Dane, Danish ; Portugal, 
Portuguese ; Plato, Platonic. 

9. By adding ed : as, saint, sainted; bigot, bigoted. These are 
participial. 

10. Nouns are often converted into adjectives, without change 
of termination : as, paper currency ; a gold chain. 

11. Adjectives are derived from adjectives : 

1. By adding ish or some: as, white, whitish; lone, lonesome. 
These denote quality, with diminution. 

2 By prefixing dis, in, or un : as, honest, dishonest ; consistent, 
inconsistent ; wise, unioise. These express a negation of the quali- 
ty denoted by their primitives. 

3. By adding y or ly -. as, swarth, swarthy; good, goodly. Of 
these there are very few. Almost all the derivatives of this form 
are adverbs. 

III. Adjectives are derived from verbs: 

1. By adding able or ible : (sometimes with a change of some of 



APPENDIX II. 233 

the final letters :) as, perish, perishable; vary, variable; convert, 
convertible ; divide, divisible. These denote susceptibility. 

2. By adding ive or ory : (sometimes, with a change of some of 
the final letters :) as, elect, elective ; interrogate, interrogative, in- 
terrogatory ; defend, defensive ; defame, defamatory. 

3. Words ending in ate, are mostly verbs ; but some of them 
may be employed as adjectives, in the same form : as, reprobate, 
complicate. 

IV. Adjectives are derived from participles: 

1. By prefixing un: as, unyielding, unregarded, undeserved. 

2. By combining the participle with some word which does not 
belon? to the verb ; as, way-faring, hollow-sounding, long-drawn. 

3. Participles often become adjectives without change of form, 
Such adjectives are distinguished from participles only by the con- 
struction : as, " A lasting ornament," — " The starving cbymist." — 
" Words of learned length." 

OF THE PRONOUNS. 

The English Pronouns are all of Saxon origin. The following 
appears to be their derivation : 

Eng. I, my or mine, me ; we, our or ours, us. 

3ax - ic, myo, me; pe, urie, up. 

Eng. thou, thy or thine, thee; ye, your or yours, you. 

Sax. ^^ $ IUj $e; ge, eoppp, eop. 

Eng. he, his, him; they, their or theirs, them. 

Sax. he, hyp, him; hi, hep. or ft eojia, hem. 

Eng. she, her or hers, her; they, their or theirs, them. 

Sax. heo,heji a or hyria,hert; hi, hepi or fteona, hem. 

Eng. it, its, it ; they, their or theirs, them. 

3ax. hit, hyp, hit ; hi; hept or fteorta, hem. 

The plurals and oblique cases do not all appear to be regular 
derivatives from the nominative singular. Many of these pro- 
nouns, as well as a vast number of other words of frequent use in 
the language, ^were variously written by the old Eagligh and Ang- 
lo-Saxon authors. He who traces the history of our language will 
meet with them under all the following forms, and perhaps more : 

1. I, J, Y, y, y, i, ic, ich, ic, — my, mi, mio, mine, 
myne, myn, myn, — me, mee, me; — "vve, wee, pe, — our or 
ours, oure,upie, — us, up. 

2. Thou, thu, ftu, — thy, tin, thin, thine, thyne, thyn s 
bin, — thee, the, fte; — ye, ze, zee, ge, — your or yours, 
youre, jour, goure, eopeji, — you, gou, zou, mh, eop. 

3. He, hee, hie, he, — his, hise, is, hys, hyse, ys, ys, 
hys, hyp, — him, hine, hen, hyne, hym, hym, him ; — they, 
thay, thei, hi, hii, hy, hig. hi, — their or theirs, ther, 
theyr, thair, thare, here, her, hire, hyjia, fteorta, — them, 
theym, thaym, thaim, thame, tham, era, hero, heom. 



284 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4 She, sebe, scjho, pcae, y eo, heo, — her, [possessive,] hir, 
hire, byre, hy-jie, iiyjia, htjia, — hek, [objective,] hi r , hire, 
heji. 

5. It, yt, yt, hit, it, hit. This pronoun is from the 
perfect participle of hasten, £0 name^ and signifies f/ie 
.s<mV/j it seems to have been originally of both numbers, 
and all genders. 

The relatives are derived from the same source, and have passed 
through similar changes J as, 

1 . WHo,ho,vvha,hwa, qua, hpa, — whose, whos, bpsep, — 
whom, whome, hwom, hpam. 

2. Which, wbiche, whyche, whilch, quilch, quilfc, 
qubilk, hwilc, hpilc. 

3. What, hwat, hwget, hwet, quhat, quthat, qua that, 
hwa that, bpa ftast. This pronoun appears to have been 
originally a compound of who and that, though the Anglo- 
Saxons wrote it as one word, hpsec. Its compound signi- 
fi cation strengthens this idea of its formation. 

4. That, ftac, ftset, fte. Home Tooke supposes this 
word to have been originally the perfect participle of 
^ean, to take. 

From its various uses, the word that is called sometimes a pro- 
noun, sometimes an adjective, and sometimes a conjunction ; but, 
in respect to derivation, it is, doubtless, one and the same. — 
As an adjective, it was formerly applicable to a plural noun ; as, 
" That holy ordres." — Dr. Martin. 

OF VERBS. 

In English, Verbs are derived from nouns, from adjectives, or 
from verbs. 

I. Verbs are derived from nouns : 

1. By adding ize, ise, en, or ate ; as, author, authorize ; method, 
methodise ; length, lengthen ; origin, originate. The termination 
ize is of Greek origin ; and ise of French : the former only should 
be employed in forming English derivatives. 

2. By changing a consonant, or by adding mute e : as, advice, 
advise ; hath, bathe; breatii, breathe. 

II. Verbs are derived from adjectives : 

1. By adding en, ate, or ize: as, deep, deepen ; domestic, domesti- 
cate; civil, civilize. 

2. Many adjectives become verbs, without change of form : as, 
warm, to warm ; dry, to dry; black, to black ; forward, to forward. 

III. Verbs are derived from verbs : 

By prefixing a, be, dis, for, fore, mis, over, out, un, under, up., or 
ivith : as, rise, arise; sprinkle, besprinkle ; own, disown; bid, forbid ; 
see, foresee ; take, mistake; look, overlook; run, outrun; fasten, un- 
fasten; go, undergo ; hold t uphold; draw, withdraw. 



APPENDIX If, 285 

OF PARTICIPLES. 

All English Participles are derived from English verbs, in the 
manner explained under the head of Etymology ; and when for- 
eign participles are introduced into the language, they become 
other parts of speech. 

OF ADVERBS. 

1. In English, many Adverbs are derived from adjectives by ad- 
ding ly, which is an abbreviation for like : as, candid, candidly ; 
sordid, sordidly. Most adverbs of manner are thus formed. 

2. Many adverbs are compounds formed from two or more Eng- 
lish words ; as, herein, indeed, to-day, always, already, elsewhere/ 
sometimes, wherewithal. The formation and the meaning of these 
are in general sufficiently obvious. 

3. About seventy adverbs are formed by means of the prefix a ; 
as, Abreast, abroad, across, afresh, away, ago, awry, astray. 

4. Needs is a contraction of need is ; prithee, of I pray thee ; alone, 
of all one ; only, of one like ; anon, of in one [instant] ; never, of 
ne ever [not ever]. 

5. Very is from the French veray or vrai, true : still, is from the 
imperative of the Saxon rCella»', to put ; else is from the impera- 
tive of ale ran, to dismiss. Rather is the comparative of the an- 
cient rath, soon. 

OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

The English Conjunctions are mostly of Saxon origin. The best 
dictionaries of our language give us, for the most part, the same 
words in Saxon characters ; but Home Tooke, in his Diversions of 
Purity, a learned and curious work which the advanced student 
may peruse with advantage, traces these, and many other English 
particles to Saxon verbs or participles. The following derivations 
are offered principally on his authority : Ax (signifying if, now 
absolete) is the imperative of auan, to grant ; — and is from aa-ab, 
the imperative of anan-ab, to grant to, to add to ; — if, from £*F, 
[gifi] the imperative of ppan, to give ;— yet, from g^C, [get,]the 
imperative of getan. to get ; — eke, (signifying also, nearly obso- 
lete,) from eac, the imperative of eacan, to add /—though, from 
ftapg, [thafg,] the imperative of Sapgan, to allow;— but, (im- 
plying addition,) from boc, the imperative of botan, to boot, to 
add;— but, (denoting exception.) from be-utan, the imperative of 
beou-ucan, to be out;— unless, from onler, [onles] the impera- 
tive of outer an, to dismiss;— lest, from iered, [Used,] the per- 
fect participle of leraD, to dismiss ;— that, from '^ffit:, [thcet,] 
the perfect participle of fteao, to take;— since, from finer |°" 
ryue, the perfect participle of peon, to see;— -op, is a contraction 
of the Saxon Ooejl, other; — nor is a contraction of ne or; — ej- 



286 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ther is from the Saxon ^g^epu cegther ', — neither is a contrae* 
of ne either; — notwithstanding is an English compound which 
needs no explanation. 

OF PREPOSITIONS, 

The following is the derivation of most of the English Preposi- 
tions : Above, from a {on or at] be and upa, high ; — about, from 
a and bout, limit ;— after, the comparative of aft, now used only 
by seamen ; — against, from > n-geo< b, gone at ; — along, from a 
and long ; — -amid, from a and mid; — amidst, from a and midst, 
contracted from middest ; — among, abbreviated for amongst; — • 
amongst, from a and mongst,& Saxon participle, signifying mdxed;— 
at, from the Saxon KC ; — before, from be [by] and the adjective 
fore; — behind, from be and hind ; — below, from be audlow ; be- 
neath, from be andneath, low, whence nether, lower; — beside, 
from be and the noun side ; — besides,* from be and sides; — be- 
tween, from be and twain, two ; — betwixt, from be and a Gothic 
word signifying two; — beyond, from be and geoi>b,theperfectpar« 
ticiple of ge lib an, to pass; — by, formerly written bi and be, is 
the imperative of beon, to be ; — concerning, from the imperfect 
participle of the verb-concern ; — down, from the Anglo-Saxon dun, 
low ; — during, from the old verb dure, to last; — except, from the 
imperative of the verb except ; — for, from a Gothic noun signify- 
ing cause ; — from, from the Saxon pp. inn -or pjl?m, beginning; — - 
in, from the Latin in; — into, from in and to;— of, from the Saxon 
Op, which H. Tooke supposes to be from a noun signifying off- 
spring ; — on, perhaps contracted from upon, which H. Tooke says, 
is from r<poo, high; — over, from up* Jia, higher; — round, from 
the adjective round; — around, from a and round; — since, from Se- 
en, to see ; — through, contracted for thorough, which is from a Sax- 
on word signifying a door, or passage ; — throughout, from through 
and out ; — till, from til, noting end of time ; — to, from the Saxon 
CO, which, according to H. Tooke, is from a Gothic noun signify- 
ing end ; — touching, from the verb touch ; — toward, or towards, 
from topr.Jlb, which is probably composed of Co, to, and P a p^>? 
ward, from pajibian, to look ; — under, from the Dutch on-neder. 
i. e. on-nether ; — underneath, from under and neaih ; — up, from 
up. Sax. which H. Tooke traces to lipa, high ; — with, perhaps 
from piftan, to join;- — within, from with and in ; — without, from 
with and out, According to H. Tooke, with in the last two com- 
pounds, is from pyp.^>,the imperative of pyp^ it), to be ; and 
the meaning of the former is be in, and of the latter be out. 

%Beside should be used as a preposition, and besides only as an adverb. See rea 
stms for this distinction, in Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric. 



APPENDIX II. 287 

OF INTERJECTIONS. 

Those significant and constructive words which are occasionally 
used as Interjections, do not require an explanation here ; and 
those mere sounds which are in no wise expressive of thought, 
scarcely admit of definition or derivation. The interjection hey is 
probably a corruption of the adjective high ; — alas is from the 
French helas ; — alack is probably a corruption of alas; — wela- 
w ay, which is sometimes corrupted into welladay, is from the Sax- 
on palapa, wo on wo; — fie, from pun, to hate ; — heyday, from 
high day ; — avaunt, from the French avant, before; — lo, from 
look;- — begone, from be, and gone; — welcome, from well and 
come. 

OF PREFIXES. 

In the formation of words, certain particles are often employed 
as prefixes ; which, as they generally have some peculiar import, 
may be separately explained. A few of them are of Anglo-Saxon 
origin ; and the greater part of these, are still employed as separ- 
ate words in our language. The rest are Latin and Greek preposi- 
tions. — The roots to which they are prefixed, are not always pr«- 
per English words. 

I. ENGLISH OR ANGLO-SAXON PREFIXES. 

1. A signifies, on, in, at, or to ; as in a-broad, ashore, asleep, a- 
far, a-field. The French d, to, is probably the same ; as in a-dieu. 
This prefix is sometimes redundant ; as in a-wake, a-rise. 

2. Be signifies upon, by, to, or for ; as in bespatter, be-limes, 
be-tide, bespeak. It is sometimes redundant ; as in be-gird, be- 
deck, be-loved. 

3. For, in composition, seems to signify from; it is found in 
the irregular verbs, for-bear, for-bid, for-get, for-give, forsake, for- 
swear. 

4. Fore, prefixed to verbs, signifies before ; as in fore-knoiv, fore- 
tell : prefixed to nouns, it is an adjective, and signifies anterior ; as 
in fore-side, fore-part. 

5. Mis, signifies wrong; as in mis-do, mis-place. 

6. Over, denotes superiority or excess ; as in over-power, over- 
strain, over-large. 

7. Out, prefixed to verbs denotes excess ; as in, out-do, out-leap : 
prefixed to nouns, it is an adjective, and signifies exterior; as ia 
outside. 

8. Un denotes negation or contrariety; as in un-kind, un-load. 
9 Under denotes inferiority; as in under -value, under -clerk. 

10. Up. denotes motion upwards; as in up- lift: sometimes, sub- 
version ; as in upset. 

11. With, signifies against, from, or back; as in withstand, with- 
hold, with-draw. 

II. LATIN PREFIXES. 

The primitive words to which these are prefixed, are not many 



288 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

of them employed separately in English. The final letter of the 
preposition is often changed before certain consonants. 

1. A, ab, abs, — from or away : as, a-vert, to turn from ; ab-duee, 
to lead from ; abs-lract, to draw away. 

2. Ad, ac, af, al, an, op, as, at, — to or at : as, ad-vert, to turn to ;. 
ac-cede, to yield to ; af-flux, a flowing to ; al-ly, to bind to ; an- 
nex, to link to ; ap-ply, to put to ; assume, to take to; at-t est to 
witness to. 

3. Ante, — before: as, ante-cedent, going before; ante-mundane, 
before the world. 

4. Circum, — around or about : as, circum-volve, to roll around, 

5. Con, com, co, col, cor, — together : as, con-tract, to draw toge- 
ther j corn-pel, to drive together ; co-erce, to force together ; col- 
lect, to gather together, cor-rade, to scrape together. 

6. Contra, — against : as, contra-diet, to speak against. 

7. Be, — from or down : as, de-tract, to draw from ; de-pend, to 
hang from ; de-press, to press down. 

8. Dis,di, — away or apart : as, dis-pel, to drive away; dissect, 
to cut apart : di-vert, to turn away. Dis, before English words, 
generally reverses their meaning : as, please, dis-please. 

9. E, ex, ec, ef, — out : as, e-ject, to cast out; ex-tract, to draw out ; 
ecstasy, a raising out ; ef-face, to blot out. 

10. Extra, — beyond : as, extra-vagant, wandering beyond. 

11. In, il, im, ir, — in : as inspire, to breathe in ; il-lude, to draw 
in by deceit; im-mure, to wall in; ir-ruption, a breaking in. 
These syllables, prefixed to nouns or adjectives, generally reverse 
their meaning ; as, ir-religion, ir-rational, insecure. 

12. Inter, — between: as, intersperse, to scatter between. 

13. Intro, — within : as, intro-vert, to turn within. 

14. Ob, oc, of, op, — against: as, ob-trude, to thrust against ; oc* 
cur, to run against; of-fer, to bring against; op-pose, to place 
against. 

15. Per, — through or by : as.per-vade, to go through ; per-chance, 
by chance. 

16. Post, — after : as, post-pone, to place after. 

17. Prce, ovpre, — before; t^s, presume, to take before. 

18. Pro, — for, forth, or forwards: as, pro-vide, to take care for: 
pro-duce, to bring forth ; pro-trude, to thrust forward. 

19. Prceter, — past or beyond : as, preter-it, gone by ; preter-natu- 
ral, beyond what is natural. 

20. Re, — again or back : as, re-view, to view again ; re-pel, to 
drive back. 

21. Retro, — backwards : as, retro-cession, a going backwards. 

22. Se, — aside or apart : as, se-ducc, to lead aside ; se-cede, to go 
apart. 

23. Sub, sup, — under: as, subscribe, to write under ; sup-ply, to 
put under. 

24. Subter, — beneath : as, subter -flu ous, flowing beneath. 

25. Super, — over or above : as, super -faious, flowing over ; su- 
per-natant, swimming above. 

26. Trans, — beyond, over, to another state or place : as, trans- 
gress, to pass beyond, or over; trans-mit, to send to an other plajtfe ".. 
trans-form, to change to an other shape. 



APPENDIX II. 289 



111. GREEK PREFIXES. 

1. A and an denote privation : as in a-nomalous, wanting rule ; 
an-onymous, wanting name ; an-archy, want of government. 

2. Amphi, — both or two : as, amphi-bious, living in two ele- 
ments. 

3. Anti, — against: as, anti-acid, against acidity; anti-febrile, 
against fever. 

4. Apo, aph, — from: as, apostrophe, a turning from; aph-ceresis, 
a taking from. 

5. Dia, — through: as, dia-gonal, through the corners ; dia-meter t 
the measure through. 

6. Epi, eph, — upon ; as, epi-demic, upon the people ; eph-emera, 
upon a day. 

7. Hyper, — over : as, hyper-critical, over critical. 

8. Hypo, — under: as, hypo-stasis, substance, or that which stands 
under ; hypo-thesis, supposition, or a placing under. 

9. Meta, — beyond, over, to an other state or place : as, meta- 
morphose, to change to an other shape. 

10. Para, — against : as, para-dox, something contrary to com- 
mon opinion. 

11. Peri, — around: as, peri-phery, the circumference, or mea- 
sure round. 

12. Syn, sym, syl, — together : as, syn-tax, a placing together ; 
sym-pathy } a suffering together ; syl-lable, what is taken together 



26 



APPENDIX III. 

(SYNTAX.) 

OF STYLE. 

Style is the particular manner in which a person expresses his 
conceptions, by means of language. It is different from mere 
Words, and is not to be regulated altogether by rules of contrac- 
tion It always has some relati on to the author's peculiar manner 
of thinking; and, being that sort of expression which his thoughts 
most readily assume, sometimes partakes, not only oi what ,s char- 
acteristic of the man, but even of national peculiarity. the 
words which an author employs, may be proper, and so constructed 
as to violate no rule of syntax ; and yet his style may have great 

& To designate the general characters of style, such epithets as 
concise, diffuse, -neat, negligent,-nervous, feeble,-simple, af- 
fected,— easy, stiff,-perspicuous, obscure -elegant florid,-are 
employed. A considerable diversity of style, may be found in 
compositions all equally excellent in their kind. And indeed 
Afferent subjects, as well as the different endowments by which 
genius is distinguished, require this diversity. But in forming his 
stvle the learner should remember, that a negligent, feeble, attest- 
ed stiff or obscure style, is always faulty ; and that perspicuity, 
ease, simplicity, strength, and neatness, are qualities always to be 

^TnoMer to acquire a good style,the frequent practice of compl- 
in*, is indispensably necessary. Without exercise, and diligent 
attention, rules for the attainment of this object, will be of no 
avail When the learner has acquired such a knowledge of gram- 
mar as to be in some degree qualified for the undertaking, he 
should devote a stated portion of bis time to composition. This 
exercise will bring the powers of his mind into requisition, in away 
that is well calculated to strengthen them. And, if he has oppor- 
tunity for reading, he may, by a diligent perusal of the best au- 
thors, acquire both language, taste, and sentiment ; which are the 
essential qualifications of a good writer. 

In reeardto the qualities which constitute a good style, we can 
here offer no more than a few brief hints. With respect to words 
and phrases, particular attention should be paid to purity, proprie- 
ty, and precision ; and, with respect to sentences, to perspicuity, uni- 
ty f and strength. 

PURITY. 

Purity of style, consists in the use of such words and phrases on 
ly, as belong to the language which we write or speak. 



APPENDIX in. 291 

1. Avoid the unnecessary use of foreign words or idioms ; as 
fraicheur, hauteur, delicatesse, politesse, noblesse ; he repented him- 
self; it serves to an excellent purpose. 

2. Avoid obsolete words : as, whilom, erewhile, whoso, albeit, more- 
over, aforetime, melhinks. 

3. Avoid unauthorized words: as, flutter ation,inspectator, judge- 
matical, incumberment, connexily, electerized, martyrized. 

PROPRIETY. 

Propriety of language, consists in the selection and right con- 
struction, of such words as the best usage has appropriated to 
those ideas, which we intend to express by them. 

1. Avoid low and provincial expressions: such as, says /; thinks 
I to myself; to get into a scrape ; stay here while I return. 

2. la writing prose, avoid words and phrases that are merely 
poetical: such as, morn, eve, plaint, lone, amid, oft, steepy ; what 
time the winds arise. 

3. Avoid technical terms : except where they are necessary, in 
treating of a particular art or science. 

4. Avoid the recurrence of words in different senses, or such a 
repetition of words as denotes paucity of language : as, " His own 
reason might have suggested better reasons." — " Gregory favoured 
the undertaking, for no other reason than this, that the manager,in 
countenance, favoured his friend." — " I want to go and see what 
he wants. 1 ' 

5. Supply words that are wanting : thus, instead of " This action 
increased his former services," say, " This action increased tht 
merit of his former services." 

6. Avoid equivocal or ambiguous expressions : as, " His memory 
shall be lost on the earth." — " I long since learned to like nothing 
but what you do." 

7. Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent expressions : as, " I have 
observed that the superiority among these coffee-house politicians, 
proceeds from an opinion of gallantry and fashion." — ''These 
words do not convey even an opaque idea of the author's mean- 
ing." 

PRECISION. 

Precision consists in avoiding all superfluous words, and adapt- 
ing the expression exactly to the thought, so as to exhibit neither 
more nor less than is intended by the author. 

1. Avoid a useless tautology, either of expression or sentiment : 
as in, — return again; return back again ; converse together; rise 
■up ; fall down ; enter in ; a mutual likeness to each other ; the latter 
end ; liquid streams ; grateful thanks : the last of all ; throughout 
the whole book ; whenever I go, he always meets me there ; Jor 
why ; because why ; over head and ears ; from hence ; where is he 
at ? in there ; nothing else but that ; it is odious and hateful ; his 
faithfulness and fidelity should be rewarded. 

2. Observe the exact meaning of words accounted synonymous : 
thus, instead of, " Though his actions and intentions were good, h» 
lost his character," — say, " he lo6this reputation." 



292 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PERSPICUITY. 

Perspicuity consists in freedom from obscurity or ambiguity, 
It is a quality so essential, in every kind of writing, that for the 
want of it nothing can atone. Without this, the richest orna- 
ments of style, only glimmer through the dark, and puzzle instead 
of pleasing the reader. Perspicuity, being the most important 
property of language, and an exemption from the most embarras- 
sing defects, seems even to rise to a degree of positive beauty. 
We are naturally pleased with a style, that frees us from all sus- 
pense in regard to the meaning; that carrfes us through the sub- 
ject without embarrassment or confusion; and that always flows 
like a limpid stream, through which we can see to the very bot- 
tom. 

1. Adjectives, relative pronouns, participles, adverbs, and ex- 
planatory phrases, should be placed as near as possible to the 
w^ords to which they relate, and in such a situation as the sense 
requires. The following sentences are deficient in perspicuity: — 
" By the pleasures of the imagination, I mean only such pleasures 
as arise originally from sight." — " Reverence is the veneration 
paid to superior sanctity, intermixed with a certain degree of awe." 
" The Romans understood liberty, at least, as well as we." — " Taste 
was never made to cater for vanity." 

2. In prose, a poetic collocation of words must be avoided. 

UNITY. 

Unity consists in keeping one object predominant throughout a 
sentence or paragraph. Every sentence, whether its parts be few 
or many, requires strict unity. 

1. Treat different topics in separate paragraphs, and distinct sen- 
timents in separate sentences. 

2. In the progress of a sentence, do not desert the principal 
subject in favour of adjuncts. 

3. Good writers do not introduce parentheses, except when a 
lively remark may be thrown in, without diverting the mind too 
long from the principal subject. 

STRENGTH. 

Strength consists in giving the several words and members of a 
sentence, such an arrangement as shall bring out the sense to the 
best advantage, and present every idea in its due importance. A 
concise style is the most favourable to strength. 

1. Place the mo3t important words in the situation in which they 
will make the strongest impression. 

2. A weaker assertion should not follow a stronger ; and, when 
the sentence consists of two members, the longer should be the 
concluding one. 

3. When things are to be compared or contrasted, their resem- 
blance or opposition will be rendered more striking, if some re- 
semblance in the language and construction, be preserved. 

4. It is, in general, ungraceful, to end a sentence with an ad- 
verb, a preposition, or any inconsiderable word or phrase. 



APPENDIX IV. 

(PROSODY.) 

OF POETIC DICTION. 



Poetry (as defined by Dr. Blair) "is the language of passion, or 
of enlivened imagination, formed, most commonly, into regular 
numbers." The style of poetry differs, in many respects, from 
that which is commonly adopted in prose. Poetic diction abounds 
in bold figures of speech, and unusual collocations of words. A 
great part of the figures which have been treated of under the head 
of prosody, are purely poetical. The primary aim of a poet is, to 
please and to move ; and, therefore, it is to the imagination, and 
the passions, that he speaks. He may, and he ought to have it in 
his view, to instruct, and to reform ; but. it is indirectly, and by 
pleasing and moving, that he accomplishes this end. The exterior 
and most obvious distinction of poetry, is versification : yet there 
are some forms of verse, so loose and familiar, as to be hardly dis- 
tinguishable from prose ; and there is also a species of prose, so 
measured in its cadences, and so much raised in its tone, as to ap- 
proach very near to poetical numbers. 

The following are some of the peculiarities in which the poets 
indulge : 

1. They often omit the ARTICLES: as, 

" What dreadful pleasure ! there to stand sublime, 
" Like shipwrecked mariner on desert coast ! — Beattie. 

2. They abbreviate some NOUNS; as, amaze, acclaim, consult} 
corse, eve, even, fount, helm, lament, morn, plaint, targe, weal. 

3. They employ several nouns that are not used in prose ; as 
benison, boon, emprise, fane, guerdon, guise, ire, ken, lore, meed, sire, 
steed, welkin, yore. 

4. They introduce the noun self after an other noun of the pos- 
sessive case ; as, 

" Affliction's semblance bends not o'er thy tomb, 

Affliction's self deplores thy youthful doom."— Byron. 
" Thoughtless of beauty, she was beauty's self" — Thomson. 

5. They place before the verb, words that usually come after it ; 
and, after it, those that usually come before it : as, 

" No jealousy their dawn of love o'er cast, 
Nor blasted were their wedded dayswMh. strife."— Beattie. 

2b * 



294 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" No hive hast thou of hoarded sweets." 
11 Thy chain a wretched weight shall prove."— Langhome. 
" Follows the loosen'd aggravated roar." — Thomson. 
" That purple grows the primrose pale." — Langhome. 

6. They place the ADJECTIVE after its noun ; as, 

" Or where the gorgeous East, with richest hand, 

Showers on her kings barbaric, pearl and gold."— Milton. 
" Come, nymph demure, with mantle blue" 

7. They ascribe qualities to things to which they do not literally 
belong ; as, 

" And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds."— Gray.^ 

" Imbitter'd'more and more from peevish day to day.' —Thorn. 

** All thin and naked to the numb cold night"— Shale. 

8. They use concrete terms to express abstract qualities ; as, 
" Earth's meanest son, all trembling, prostrate falls, 

And on the boundless of thy goodness calls."— Young. 
8S Meanwhile, whate'er of beautiful or new, 
Sublime or dreadful, in earth, sea, or sky, 
By chance or search was offer'd to his view. 
He scann'd with curious and romantic eye."—Beathe. 

D. They substitute quality for manner ; as, 
" And, arching proud his neck, with oary feet 

Bears forward>rce, and guards his osier isle."— Thomson. 
** Thither continual pilgrims crowded still."— Idem. 

10. They form new compound epithets ; as, 

" In world-rejoicing state, it moves sublime."— Thomson. 

" The dewy-skirted clouds imbibe the sun."— Idem. 

" By brooks and groves in hollow-whispering gales."— Idem. 

" The violet of sky-woven vest."— Langhome. 

" A league from Epidamnum had we sailed, 
Before the always-wind-obeying deep 
Gave any tragic instance of our harm." — Shale. 

11. They connect the comparative degree to the positive ; as, 
" Near and more near the billows rise."— Merrick. 

« Wide and wider spreads the vale."— Dyer. _ 

" Wide and more wide, the o'erflowings of the mind 
Take every creature in, of every kind."— Pope. 

12 They form many adjectives in y; as, Agleamy ray,— towery 
height,— sleepy hill,— steely casque— /ie W harvests,— moom/ shield, 
—writhy snake,— stilly lake,— vasty &ee V ,—paly circlet. 

13 They employ adjectives of an abbreviated form; as, dread, 
drear, ebon, hoar, lone, scant, slope, submiss, vermil,yon. 



APPENDIX IV. 295 

14. They employ several adjectives that are not used in prose ; 
as, azure, blithe, boon, dank, darkling, darksome, doughty, dun, fell, 
rife, rapt, rueful, sear, sylvan, twain, wan. 

15. They employ personal PRONOUNS, and introduce theflr 
nouns afterwards ; as, 

"It curl'd not Tweed alone, that breeze." — W. Scott. 
" Is it the lightning's quivering glance, 

That on the thicket streams ; 
Or do they flash on spear and lance, 

The sun's retiring beams." — Idem. 

16. They sometimes omit the relative, of the nominative 
case ; as, 

*' For is there aught in sleep can charm the wise ?" — Thomson, 

17. They omit the antecedent, or introduce it after the rela- 
tive; as, 

'* Who never fasts, no banquet e'er enjoys." — Young. 
" Who dares think one thing and another tell, 
My soul detests him as the gates of hell." — Pope's Homer. 

18. They remove relative pronouns and other connectives, into 
xhe body of their clauses ; as, 

" Parts the fine locks, her graceful head that deck." — Pope, 
" Not half so dreadful rises to the sight 
Orion's dog, the year when autumn weighs." — Thomson. 

19. They make intransitive VERBS transitive ; as, 

" Awhile he stands, 
Gazing the inverted landscape, half afraid 
To meditate the blue profound below." — Thomson. 
" Still in harmonious intercourse, they liv'd 
The rural day, and talked the flowing heart." — Idem. 

20. They give to the imperative mood the first and the third per- 
son ; as, 

" Turn we a moment fancy's rapid flight." — Thomson. 
" Be man's peculiar work his sole delight." — Bcattie. 
" And what is reason ? Be she thus dejirid : 
Reason is upright stature in the soul !" — Young. 

21. They employ can, could, and would as principal verbs transi- 
tive : as, 

" What for ourselves we can, is always ours." 
"Who does the best his circumstance allows, 

Does well, acts nobly : — angels could no more."— Young. 
'.' What would this man ? Now upward will he soar, 

And, little less than angel, would be more." — Pope. 



296 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

22. They place the infinitive before the word on which it de- 
pends ; as, 

" When first thy sire to send on earth 
Virtue, his darling child, designed." — Gray. 

23. They place the auxiliary after its principal; as, 

" No longer heed the sunbeam bright 
That plays on Carron's breast he can." — Langhorne. 

24. Before verbs, they sometimes arbitrarily employ or omit 
prefixes; as, bedrop, begird, bedim, evanish; lure, wail, wilder, 
reave. 

25. They abbreviate verbs ; as, list, ope. 

26. They employ several verbs that are not used in prose ; as 
appal, astound, brook, cower, doff, ken, wend, ween, trow. 

27. They sometimes imitate a Greek construction of the infini- 
tive ; as, 

" He knew to sing and build the lofty rhyme." 
" For not to have been dipp'd in Lethe lake, 
Could save the son of Thetis from to die." 

28. They employ the PARTICIPLE more frequently than prose 
writers, and in a construction somewhat peculiar ; as, 

" Pursues, as inclination or sad choice leads him perplex'd" 
" He came, and standing in the midst, explain'd 
The peace rejected, but the truce obtain d." 

29. They employ several ADVERBS that are not used in prose ;. 
as, oft, haply, inly. 

30. They give to adverbs a peculiar location ; as, 

f l Peeping from forth their alleys green." — Collins. 
" Erect the standard there of ancient night." — Milton. 
" The silence often of pure innocence 
Persuades, when speaking fails." — Shak. 

31. They omit the introductory adverb there ; as 

" Was nought around but images of rest." — Thomson. 

32. They employ the CONJUNCTIONS, or— or, and nor— nor } as 
correspondents ; as, 

" Or by the lazy Scheldt or wandering Po." — Goldsmith. 
" Wealth heap'd on wealth nor truth nor safety buys." — Johns. 
" Who by repentance is not satisfied, 
Is nor of heav'n, nor earth." — Shak. 

33. They often place PREPOSITIONS and their adjuncts, be- 
fore the words on which they depend ; as, 

" Against your fame with fondness hate combines; 
The rival batters, and the lover mines."— Johnson. 



APPENDIX IV. 297 

34. They sometimes place the preposition after its object ; as, 

" When beauty, Eden's bowers within, 

First stretch'd the arm to deeds of sin, 

When passion burn'd, and prudence slept, 

The pitying angels, bent and wept." — Hogg. 
u The Muses fair, these peaceful shades among, 

With skilful fingers sweep the trembling strings." — Lloyd. 

35. They employ INTERJECTIONS more frequently than prose 
writers ; as, 

" O let me gaze ! — Of gazing there's no end. 
Olet me think ! — Thought too is wilder'd here." — Young. 

36. They employ antiquated words and modes of expression; as, 

" Withouten that would come an heavier bale." — Thomson. 
" He was to weet, a little roguish page, 

Save sleep and play, who minded nought at all." — Idem. 
" Not one eftsoons in view was to be found." — Id. 
11 To number up the thousands dwelling here, 

An useless were, and eke an endless task." — Id. 
11 Of clerks good plenty here you mote espy. — Id. 
" But these Ipassen by, with nameless numbers raoe." — Id. 
" All careless rambling where if liked them most." — Id. 
" Behooves you then to ply your finest art." — Id. 
u What time the sun arose on Vennachar's broad wave." — Scott. 
u In sooth 'twas almost all the shepherd knew." — Beaitie. 
" There must thou wake perforce thy Doric quill." 
" Whose sires, perchance, in Fairyland might dwell." — BeaMe* 
" Stern rugged nurse, thy rigid lore, 

With patience many a year she bore." — Gray. 
" While vice pours forth the troubled streams of hell, 

The which, howe'er disguis'd, at last with dole, 

Will through the tortur'dbreast their fiery torrentroll." Thorn. 
" Him thought he by the brook of Cherith stood." — Milton. 
" I found not what methought I wanted still." — Idem. 

u Of other creatures as him pleases best, 
Wherever plac'dj lethim dispose."— Id. 



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